Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Summary and Keywords
Bullying is a growing problem in sports and performance settings. Bullying falls under the
umbrella of "athlete maltreatment," which includes any form of harm and all relation- ships
where damage could occur in Sport and performance. Specifically, bullying is defined as
repeated hostile and deliberate behavior from one person (the perpetrator) to another (the target)
with the intent to harm or threaten harm to the target; an im- balance of power marks it. Often,
after extreme bullying, the target feels terrorized.
Athlete maltreatment in sports and performance has been categorized into one of two forms:
relational maltreatment and nonrelational maltreatment. Bullying is a relational problem. In
particular, sport and performance bullying can occur from coach to player, parent to player, or
player to player, and often takes the form of (1) making unreasonable performance demands of
the target, (2) repeated threats to restrict or remove the target's privileges or opportunities, (3)
screaming or yelling directed at the unwarranted target, (4) repeated and continual criticism of
the target's abilities, (5) discounting or denying the target's accomplishments, (6) blaming the
target for their mistakes, (7) threats of and/or actual physical violence toward the target, and (8)
social media or e-mail messages with threats or insults toward the target.
Sports and performance organizations should develop and implement antibullying policies. Six
potential steps toward policy development and implementation include: (1) defining bullying
behaviors, (2) referring to existing "best-practice" bullying policies, (3) specifi- cally outlining
the reporting of bullying incidents, (4) outlining precise investigation and disciplinary actions to
be taken, (5) outlining specific assistance for bullying targets, and (6) including prevention and
training procedures. In the meantime, coaches, parents, and players can recognize that they are
role models for everyone with whom they come into contact in sports and performance settings.
Coaches, parents, and players can also accept responsibility for creating a respectful and safe
sport and performance envi-ronment, have a pre-season meeting to discuss antibullying policy,
foster open and honest communication, accept critical feedback, not engage or allow bullying
behavior them- selves, create acceptable boundaries between themselves and others, and teach
players to trust their instincts when things do not feel right. More advanced bullying prevention
and training procedures can then take place.
Keywords: athlete maltreatment, coach education, homophobia, cyberbullying, socioecological
model
,Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Introduction
Bullying is a growing problem both within and outside of sports and performance settings.
Varying definitions and measurements contribute to a range of reported prevalence rates
(Gladden, Vivolo-Kantor, Hamburger, & Lumpkin, 2014). However, recent U.S. statistics
indicate that one out of every four children—from all races, classes, and ethnicities—is bullied
(Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). Cyberbullying and child and teen bullying are also at their highest
rate ever, with 43% of students reporting being bullied online (Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). In
addition, 9 out of 10 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Trans- gender (LGBT) children were bullied or
harassed over the last year, and a third of those were assaulted in school; this is because LGBT
students are perceived to be "differ- ent" from other students (Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). This
article summarizes current definitions of bullying, interpersonal violence, and athlete
maltreatment and then presents research that highlights the damaging effects that bullying can
have on perform- ers. Finally, the article offers steps that sports and performance organizations
and person- nel can take to create inclusive sports climates and to end bullying.
What are Bullying, Interpersonal Violence, and Athlete Maltreatment?
Bullying can be defined as repeated hostile and deliberate behavior from one person (the
perpetrator) to another (the target) with the intent to harm or threaten harm to the tar- get
(Beaumont Children's Hospital, 2016). There are several forms of bullying, including physical
(e.g., hitting, kicking), verbal (e.g., threats, derogatory language), and social (e.g., exclusion,
rumors) (Steinfeldt, Vaughan, LaFollette, & Steinfeldt, 2012). Bullying can also include
emotional abuse, which involves harmful behaviors that are noncontact (Stirling & Kerr, 2014);
in addition, perpetrators will often use coercion, where the target feels pressured and intimidated
to behave in a certain way because of the perpetrator's threats (reachout.com, 2016). After
extreme bullying, the target often feels terrorized (Swearer, Espelage, & Napolitano, 2009); see
Table 1.
Table 1. Selected Types of Bullying
Type of Bul- Example
lying
Cyber • social media or e-mail messages with
threats, insults, or rumors
Homophobic • repeated jokes about one’s sexual orientation
• name-calling (e.g., queer, fag)
, Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Physical • physical intimidation (e.g., standing uncom-
fortably close, controlling space)
• threats of and/or actual physical violence to-
ward the target (e.g., hitting, kicking)
Psychological/ • verbal intimidation, threats, derogatory lan-
Emotional guage
• blaming the target for his or her mistakes
• discounting or denying the target’s accom-
plishments
• repeated and continual criticism of the
target’s abilities
• screaming or yelling directed at the
target that is unwarranted
• repeated threats to restrict or remove the
target’s privileges or opportunities (e.g.,
play- ing time)
• making unreasonable performance
demands of the target
Social • exclusion from group (e.g., keeping
teammate out of play by not passing the ball)
• spreading rumors
• shaming in front of others (e.g., belittling
or critiquing performance/skills)
Bullying falls under the giant umbrella of interpersonal violence (reachout.com, 2016) and is
marked by an imbalance of power. Interpersonal violence happens when one per- son deploys
control and power over another via emotional, physical, or sexual actions or threats, isolation,
economic control, or other coercive behavior (reachout.com, 2016). Bul- lying is just one type of
interpersonal violence; other types include gang violence, youth violence, sexual violence,
date/relationship violence, and abuse. Bullying behavior can al- so serve as a pathway to other
forms of violence. For example, among middle school stu- dents, homophobic teasing increases
the potential for subsequent sexual harassment and other forms of sexual violence (Espelage,
Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Summary and Keywords
Bullying is a growing problem in sports and performance settings. Bullying falls under the
umbrella of "athlete maltreatment," which includes any form of harm and all relation- ships
where damage could occur in Sport and performance. Specifically, bullying is defined as
repeated hostile and deliberate behavior from one person (the perpetrator) to another (the target)
with the intent to harm or threaten harm to the target; an im- balance of power marks it. Often,
after extreme bullying, the target feels terrorized.
Athlete maltreatment in sports and performance has been categorized into one of two forms:
relational maltreatment and nonrelational maltreatment. Bullying is a relational problem. In
particular, sport and performance bullying can occur from coach to player, parent to player, or
player to player, and often takes the form of (1) making unreasonable performance demands of
the target, (2) repeated threats to restrict or remove the target's privileges or opportunities, (3)
screaming or yelling directed at the unwarranted target, (4) repeated and continual criticism of
the target's abilities, (5) discounting or denying the target's accomplishments, (6) blaming the
target for their mistakes, (7) threats of and/or actual physical violence toward the target, and (8)
social media or e-mail messages with threats or insults toward the target.
Sports and performance organizations should develop and implement antibullying policies. Six
potential steps toward policy development and implementation include: (1) defining bullying
behaviors, (2) referring to existing "best-practice" bullying policies, (3) specifi- cally outlining
the reporting of bullying incidents, (4) outlining precise investigation and disciplinary actions to
be taken, (5) outlining specific assistance for bullying targets, and (6) including prevention and
training procedures. In the meantime, coaches, parents, and players can recognize that they are
role models for everyone with whom they come into contact in sports and performance settings.
Coaches, parents, and players can also accept responsibility for creating a respectful and safe
sport and performance envi-ronment, have a pre-season meeting to discuss antibullying policy,
foster open and honest communication, accept critical feedback, not engage or allow bullying
behavior them- selves, create acceptable boundaries between themselves and others, and teach
players to trust their instincts when things do not feel right. More advanced bullying prevention
and training procedures can then take place.
Keywords: athlete maltreatment, coach education, homophobia, cyberbullying, socioecological
model
,Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Introduction
Bullying is a growing problem both within and outside of sports and performance settings.
Varying definitions and measurements contribute to a range of reported prevalence rates
(Gladden, Vivolo-Kantor, Hamburger, & Lumpkin, 2014). However, recent U.S. statistics
indicate that one out of every four children—from all races, classes, and ethnicities—is bullied
(Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). Cyberbullying and child and teen bullying are also at their highest
rate ever, with 43% of students reporting being bullied online (Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). In
addition, 9 out of 10 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Trans- gender (LGBT) children were bullied or
harassed over the last year, and a third of those were assaulted in school; this is because LGBT
students are perceived to be "differ- ent" from other students (Stompoutbullying.org, 2016). This
article summarizes current definitions of bullying, interpersonal violence, and athlete
maltreatment and then presents research that highlights the damaging effects that bullying can
have on perform- ers. Finally, the article offers steps that sports and performance organizations
and person- nel can take to create inclusive sports climates and to end bullying.
What are Bullying, Interpersonal Violence, and Athlete Maltreatment?
Bullying can be defined as repeated hostile and deliberate behavior from one person (the
perpetrator) to another (the target) with the intent to harm or threaten harm to the tar- get
(Beaumont Children's Hospital, 2016). There are several forms of bullying, including physical
(e.g., hitting, kicking), verbal (e.g., threats, derogatory language), and social (e.g., exclusion,
rumors) (Steinfeldt, Vaughan, LaFollette, & Steinfeldt, 2012). Bullying can also include
emotional abuse, which involves harmful behaviors that are noncontact (Stirling & Kerr, 2014);
in addition, perpetrators will often use coercion, where the target feels pressured and intimidated
to behave in a certain way because of the perpetrator's threats (reachout.com, 2016). After
extreme bullying, the target often feels terrorized (Swearer, Espelage, & Napolitano, 2009); see
Table 1.
Table 1. Selected Types of Bullying
Type of Bul- Example
lying
Cyber • social media or e-mail messages with
threats, insults, or rumors
Homophobic • repeated jokes about one’s sexual orientation
• name-calling (e.g., queer, fag)
, Bullying in Sport and Performance Psychology
Physical • physical intimidation (e.g., standing uncom-
fortably close, controlling space)
• threats of and/or actual physical violence to-
ward the target (e.g., hitting, kicking)
Psychological/ • verbal intimidation, threats, derogatory lan-
Emotional guage
• blaming the target for his or her mistakes
• discounting or denying the target’s accom-
plishments
• repeated and continual criticism of the
target’s abilities
• screaming or yelling directed at the
target that is unwarranted
• repeated threats to restrict or remove the
target’s privileges or opportunities (e.g.,
play- ing time)
• making unreasonable performance
demands of the target
Social • exclusion from group (e.g., keeping
teammate out of play by not passing the ball)
• spreading rumors
• shaming in front of others (e.g., belittling
or critiquing performance/skills)
Bullying falls under the giant umbrella of interpersonal violence (reachout.com, 2016) and is
marked by an imbalance of power. Interpersonal violence happens when one per- son deploys
control and power over another via emotional, physical, or sexual actions or threats, isolation,
economic control, or other coercive behavior (reachout.com, 2016). Bul- lying is just one type of
interpersonal violence; other types include gang violence, youth violence, sexual violence,
date/relationship violence, and abuse. Bullying behavior can al- so serve as a pathway to other
forms of violence. For example, among middle school stu- dents, homophobic teasing increases
the potential for subsequent sexual harassment and other forms of sexual violence (Espelage,
