LIBERALISM
Human Nature: mankind’s relationship with each other and the world
John Locke (1632-1704)
Humans are rational beings who have egotistical individualism, where as rational beings we are driven by self-interests in the pursuit of happiness
but are mindful of the concerns of others. Humans have a natural freedom which they have a right to (and the state must comply with). As humans are
equal and independent, so naturally do not infringe on the rights of others so reciprocally their rights are not infringed.
The state of nature is underpinned by natural laws, liberties and natural rights (e.g. right to property) that the people enjoy.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
Optimistic view of human nature as guided by reason should be applied to both men and women as rational beings, because intellectually men and
women are similar. In her book ‘Vindication on the Rights of Woman’ she argues woman’s treatment to be irrational and that women’s natural innate
rationality has not been developed. Women have unnaturally been subjugated to only want to marry and have children, never realising their individual
potential.
John Stuart Mill (1806-73)
Human nature is fundamentally rational, but it is not fixed- it is forever progressing to a higher level. Individual actions are tolerated unless
demonstrated actions would harm others. Humans have ‘higher pleasures’ and ‘lower pleasures’, higher pleasures being distinctly human capacities of
utilitarianism causing happiness of others compared to ‘lower pleasures’ of satisfactory ignorance of a pig, for example. Tolerance of diverse opinions
is what ensures new ideas emerging while bad ideas are exposed by open, rational debate. Human nature is never the ‘finished article’ (as it was for
classical liberals) but there is always room for improvement and that liberty is not just a ‘natural right’ but the engine of ongoing human development-
this is called developmental individualism.
Thomas Hill Green (1836-1882)
In a natural state, an individual has negative liberty where they have the absence of constraints on themselves. Positive liberty is having the fulfilment of
potential, developing moral sensibilities through exercising duties and responsibilities. Negative liberty may curtail the liberty of others. Ego constrained
by a degree of altruism.
John Rawls (1921-2002)
, Humans are naturally selfish yet empathetic, valuing individual liberty and the plight of others. Due to this, when faced with ‘the original position’ under
the ‘veil of ignorance’ where the individual has no preconception of who they may be in society, individuals choose a society where poorest members
fare significantly better than in present society. However, human nature is still wanting individual liberty and self-fulfillment.
Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
Human nature has evolved in a way that disadvantages women due to the discouragement of the self-advancement of women of women’s rationality
and enterprise. Argued illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature condemned women to underachievement. All individuals should be free to
seek control over their own lives and fulfil their full potential.
State: the role of the state in society and its principles.
John Locke (1632-1704)
Believed in mechanistic theory (belief humans can create a state that reflects their needs) of the ‘state of law’ only being legitimate if it respected and
protected the natural rights of human beings. There is a social contract where the government only has legitimacy if given power by the people and in
return their natural rights are protected by the government. Government can be replaced if it fails to maintain the core value of liberty. The ideal state
would be one in which citizens had consented to the state's rulings and in return the state improved their situation. Due to contractual nature rather than
a divine right of power, power would be dispersed e.g. lawmakers separate from the law enforcers. Locke denied the state as God’s creation but an
artificial machine, denying the Divine Right of Kings and the concentration of power that can be exercised randomly. He claimed the modern state had
been designed to resolve disputes between individuals more efficiently under the state of nature. Believed ‘government should always be the servant,
not master, of the people’.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
Welcomed the American Revolution in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789. Stressed that the monarchical state should be replaced with a republic
and formal equality and individual rights enshrined constitutionally.State’s implication of women not being rational by rarely allowing land ownership, or
remunerative employment, and once married having little legal protection against violence inflicted by spouse and no source of help for divorce denied
women individual freedom and formal equality. As the state denies women the vote over who can govern them, this is a violation of ‘government by
Human Nature: mankind’s relationship with each other and the world
John Locke (1632-1704)
Humans are rational beings who have egotistical individualism, where as rational beings we are driven by self-interests in the pursuit of happiness
but are mindful of the concerns of others. Humans have a natural freedom which they have a right to (and the state must comply with). As humans are
equal and independent, so naturally do not infringe on the rights of others so reciprocally their rights are not infringed.
The state of nature is underpinned by natural laws, liberties and natural rights (e.g. right to property) that the people enjoy.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
Optimistic view of human nature as guided by reason should be applied to both men and women as rational beings, because intellectually men and
women are similar. In her book ‘Vindication on the Rights of Woman’ she argues woman’s treatment to be irrational and that women’s natural innate
rationality has not been developed. Women have unnaturally been subjugated to only want to marry and have children, never realising their individual
potential.
John Stuart Mill (1806-73)
Human nature is fundamentally rational, but it is not fixed- it is forever progressing to a higher level. Individual actions are tolerated unless
demonstrated actions would harm others. Humans have ‘higher pleasures’ and ‘lower pleasures’, higher pleasures being distinctly human capacities of
utilitarianism causing happiness of others compared to ‘lower pleasures’ of satisfactory ignorance of a pig, for example. Tolerance of diverse opinions
is what ensures new ideas emerging while bad ideas are exposed by open, rational debate. Human nature is never the ‘finished article’ (as it was for
classical liberals) but there is always room for improvement and that liberty is not just a ‘natural right’ but the engine of ongoing human development-
this is called developmental individualism.
Thomas Hill Green (1836-1882)
In a natural state, an individual has negative liberty where they have the absence of constraints on themselves. Positive liberty is having the fulfilment of
potential, developing moral sensibilities through exercising duties and responsibilities. Negative liberty may curtail the liberty of others. Ego constrained
by a degree of altruism.
John Rawls (1921-2002)
, Humans are naturally selfish yet empathetic, valuing individual liberty and the plight of others. Due to this, when faced with ‘the original position’ under
the ‘veil of ignorance’ where the individual has no preconception of who they may be in society, individuals choose a society where poorest members
fare significantly better than in present society. However, human nature is still wanting individual liberty and self-fulfillment.
Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
Human nature has evolved in a way that disadvantages women due to the discouragement of the self-advancement of women of women’s rationality
and enterprise. Argued illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature condemned women to underachievement. All individuals should be free to
seek control over their own lives and fulfil their full potential.
State: the role of the state in society and its principles.
John Locke (1632-1704)
Believed in mechanistic theory (belief humans can create a state that reflects their needs) of the ‘state of law’ only being legitimate if it respected and
protected the natural rights of human beings. There is a social contract where the government only has legitimacy if given power by the people and in
return their natural rights are protected by the government. Government can be replaced if it fails to maintain the core value of liberty. The ideal state
would be one in which citizens had consented to the state's rulings and in return the state improved their situation. Due to contractual nature rather than
a divine right of power, power would be dispersed e.g. lawmakers separate from the law enforcers. Locke denied the state as God’s creation but an
artificial machine, denying the Divine Right of Kings and the concentration of power that can be exercised randomly. He claimed the modern state had
been designed to resolve disputes between individuals more efficiently under the state of nature. Believed ‘government should always be the servant,
not master, of the people’.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
Welcomed the American Revolution in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789. Stressed that the monarchical state should be replaced with a republic
and formal equality and individual rights enshrined constitutionally.State’s implication of women not being rational by rarely allowing land ownership, or
remunerative employment, and once married having little legal protection against violence inflicted by spouse and no source of help for divorce denied
women individual freedom and formal equality. As the state denies women the vote over who can govern them, this is a violation of ‘government by
