Introduction to Linguistics
Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 3, 14, 15, 17
Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics
When do we know when sentences are good? Is it because we perhaps once heard this
sentence and still remember it as a ‘correct English sentence’?
Knowing a language for most language users means that they can understand and produce
it, but not necessarily that they can explain how the system works. For this reason we say
that this knowledge is abstract and unconscious.
Every language is used for general communication. All languages have structure, however
they can be quite diverse in structure.
Universal properties of structure (universals):
(1) All languages consist of small elements.
Spoken language: speech sounds
Sign language: hand shapes
From these small elements all larger units, words, or signs are built and combined to
make sentences.
Compositionality of language: a word on its own has a particular meaning but it is
at the same time composed of combinations of sounds that help distinguish
meaning.
(2) All spoken languages have vowels (klinker) and consonants (medeklinker).
(3) In all languages the users can express a negative statement, ask a question, issue
an order.
(4) All languages have words for BLACK and WHITE or DARK and LIGHT.
The message of the sentences may vary depending on the order in which the words are
presented. (The mom saved the child / The child saved the mom)
Recursion: A linguistic unit of a certain type contains another linguistic unit of that same
type. (A prepositional phrase forms part of another prepositional phrase)
E.g. The dog [of the man [with the hat [without a feather]]].
E.g. Sam assumes [that Peter knows [that Ahmed thinks [that he is a liar]]].
Another typical feature of natural, human language is that they are acquired (by children)
through interaction with their environment, and thus handed down from one generation to
the next.
Various kinds of animals also use a communication system or language for the purpose of
communicating with each other. However their system is rather limitless. They contain far
fewer elements, such as movements or sounds, than words in human language. But the
1
, most important point is that in animal communication these elements cannot be combined
to produce news expressions. Their languages lack creativity, one of the characteristic
features of human language.
Also, in human language there is interaction; people adapt their use of language to that of
their conversation partners, who in turn react to what others say etc.
Bees (or other animals) dance their dances regardless of the response they get.
Thirdly, human language is spontaneous. There does not have to be a direct stimulus. A
bee will never just do their dance without a stimulus (flower). Human language is completely
independent of the here and now. Besides, bees can only tell the truth.
Finally, human language is largely arbitrary (willekeurig) as far as form and meaning are
concerned. For example, there is no relation whatsoever between the form of words like
NORTH, EAST, SOUTH and WEST.
There are a few exceptions to the rule of arbitrariness in human language, for example in
onomatopoeia; miaow for a cat, boing, sneezing etc. Sign language is also not always
arbitrary.
However in many forms of animal language - such as birdsong - the relation between form
and meaning is in fact also arbitrary. So it is not the case that the difference between
human and animal languages coincides (occur at same time) with that between arbitrary
and non-arbitrary elements.
Constructed languages are languages that have been consciously designed by humans. A
range of those have been developed in order to solve practical problems of international
communication, of bringing different nations of the world closer to each other.
In 2 respects they are quite different from natural languages. (1) Constructed languages do
not change over time, natural languages constantly do. (2) Natural languages are acquired
by children from birth and through direct interaction with their environment.
Computer languages are languages used for writing computer programs and for giving
instructions to computers. They have also not evolved slowly over time through natural
interaction between humans, but have been constructed by somebody for specific purpose.
The most noticeable feature of CL is that there is a fixed, one-to-one relation between form
and meaning. In natural language words and sentences can easily carry various different
meanings at the same time. Formal languages always have one meaning.
E.g. 3 + 4 x 5 = 23 → Outcome is always 23 and cannot be 35 as well.
Another type of language is that of non-verbal communication, language without words:
gestures, body position and facial expressions. Different cultures may have different rules of
meaning to some forms of such non-verbal communication.
Non verbal communication is more limited than ordinary language. Gestures cannot be
broken down into smaller parts, and are thus not compositional. Combining gestures into a
message with a completely different meaning is generally not possible.
2
Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 3, 14, 15, 17
Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics
When do we know when sentences are good? Is it because we perhaps once heard this
sentence and still remember it as a ‘correct English sentence’?
Knowing a language for most language users means that they can understand and produce
it, but not necessarily that they can explain how the system works. For this reason we say
that this knowledge is abstract and unconscious.
Every language is used for general communication. All languages have structure, however
they can be quite diverse in structure.
Universal properties of structure (universals):
(1) All languages consist of small elements.
Spoken language: speech sounds
Sign language: hand shapes
From these small elements all larger units, words, or signs are built and combined to
make sentences.
Compositionality of language: a word on its own has a particular meaning but it is
at the same time composed of combinations of sounds that help distinguish
meaning.
(2) All spoken languages have vowels (klinker) and consonants (medeklinker).
(3) In all languages the users can express a negative statement, ask a question, issue
an order.
(4) All languages have words for BLACK and WHITE or DARK and LIGHT.
The message of the sentences may vary depending on the order in which the words are
presented. (The mom saved the child / The child saved the mom)
Recursion: A linguistic unit of a certain type contains another linguistic unit of that same
type. (A prepositional phrase forms part of another prepositional phrase)
E.g. The dog [of the man [with the hat [without a feather]]].
E.g. Sam assumes [that Peter knows [that Ahmed thinks [that he is a liar]]].
Another typical feature of natural, human language is that they are acquired (by children)
through interaction with their environment, and thus handed down from one generation to
the next.
Various kinds of animals also use a communication system or language for the purpose of
communicating with each other. However their system is rather limitless. They contain far
fewer elements, such as movements or sounds, than words in human language. But the
1
, most important point is that in animal communication these elements cannot be combined
to produce news expressions. Their languages lack creativity, one of the characteristic
features of human language.
Also, in human language there is interaction; people adapt their use of language to that of
their conversation partners, who in turn react to what others say etc.
Bees (or other animals) dance their dances regardless of the response they get.
Thirdly, human language is spontaneous. There does not have to be a direct stimulus. A
bee will never just do their dance without a stimulus (flower). Human language is completely
independent of the here and now. Besides, bees can only tell the truth.
Finally, human language is largely arbitrary (willekeurig) as far as form and meaning are
concerned. For example, there is no relation whatsoever between the form of words like
NORTH, EAST, SOUTH and WEST.
There are a few exceptions to the rule of arbitrariness in human language, for example in
onomatopoeia; miaow for a cat, boing, sneezing etc. Sign language is also not always
arbitrary.
However in many forms of animal language - such as birdsong - the relation between form
and meaning is in fact also arbitrary. So it is not the case that the difference between
human and animal languages coincides (occur at same time) with that between arbitrary
and non-arbitrary elements.
Constructed languages are languages that have been consciously designed by humans. A
range of those have been developed in order to solve practical problems of international
communication, of bringing different nations of the world closer to each other.
In 2 respects they are quite different from natural languages. (1) Constructed languages do
not change over time, natural languages constantly do. (2) Natural languages are acquired
by children from birth and through direct interaction with their environment.
Computer languages are languages used for writing computer programs and for giving
instructions to computers. They have also not evolved slowly over time through natural
interaction between humans, but have been constructed by somebody for specific purpose.
The most noticeable feature of CL is that there is a fixed, one-to-one relation between form
and meaning. In natural language words and sentences can easily carry various different
meanings at the same time. Formal languages always have one meaning.
E.g. 3 + 4 x 5 = 23 → Outcome is always 23 and cannot be 35 as well.
Another type of language is that of non-verbal communication, language without words:
gestures, body position and facial expressions. Different cultures may have different rules of
meaning to some forms of such non-verbal communication.
Non verbal communication is more limited than ordinary language. Gestures cannot be
broken down into smaller parts, and are thus not compositional. Combining gestures into a
message with a completely different meaning is generally not possible.
2
