Examen time and date
● October 21, 2019, 15:15-17:30 (check nog een keer voor tentamen)
● Multiple-choice
Week 1, college 1
Introduction
Psychology
● The study of mind, brain and behavior
● Using the scientific method
Chapter 1, science of psychology (p. 3-6)
Genetics:
● How characteristics such as height, hair color and eye color are passed along to
offspring.
○ How a cell becomes for example a muscle cell is determined by which genes
are turned on or off.
Genome:
● The master blueprint that provides detailed instructions for everything of the human
body.
The genetic basis
● Every nucleus (celkern) contains 23 chromosome pairs
○ One pair of the chromosome comes from the mother, one from the father.
○ Each parent contributes half of a person’s DNA.
■ Half of his or her genes.
● Chromosomes are made up of coiled strands of DNA.
● The DNA molecule has a double helix shape.
● The double helix is made up of complementary chains
Gene
● Gene: meaningful sections of the DNA molecule
○ Each gene specifies an exact instruction to make a distinct polypeptide.
○ One or more polypeptides make up a protein.
● Govern the cell’s functioning by providing instructions for making proteins.
○ The environment determines which proteins are produced and when they are
produced.
● A gene codes for a protein.
,Gene expression
● Determines the body’s physical makeup.
● Determines specific developments throughout life.
● Whether a gene is turned on or off.
○ Environmental factors can affect gene expression.
○ Also internal factors can cause the turning on and turning off of genes.
● Whether a gene is transcribed into a sequence of amino acids.
● Every cell has the same nucleus, but look and function different because of gene
expression.
● Whether a gene is transcribed depends by the biochemical environment inside the
cell.
○ The biochemical environment inside the cell is influenced by:
■ The environment outside the cell.
■ Timing in development
■ The overall environment
■ Experience
■ Behavior.
Genotype
● An organism’s specific set of genes.
○ It’s determined and never changes.
Phenotype
● The organism’s observable physical characteristics.
○ Is always changing
● This develops because of the interaction between genotype and environment.
Polygenic effects
● When a population displays a range of variability for a certain characteristic.
○ In other words, the trait is influenced by many genes (as well as by
environment).
Sexual reproduction
● The 23 chromosome pairs of normal cells contain also sex chromosomes, Y and X.
○ Females: two X chromosomes (XX)
○ Males: one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
● egg and sperm cells have 23 chromosomes
● Each gene is paired with another gene.
● Allele is one specific variant of a gene.
Homozygote: alleles on locus are the same
heterozygote: alleles on locus are different
● Can be that one alles is dominant over the other.
● Other alleles are recessive
○ This gene only is expressed when it’s matched with a similar gene from the
other parent.
,A specific trait or behavior is determined by the interaction between the environment and:
● One gene pair.
● Multiple gene pairs: polygenetic inheritance.
Heritability
● Heredity is the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring by means of
genes.
● Heritability
○ Refers to the proportion of the variation in some specific trait in a population
that is due to genetics (A statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in
a trait within a population is due to genetics).
○ The trait cannot be due to environment or random chance.
○ To know the heritability of a trait, we need to know how much people vary in
that trait.
■ Once you know the variation, we can see whether people who are
related show less variation than people chosen at random.
○ When for example a trait has a heritability of .60, this means that 60 percent
of the variation in height among people is genetic.
■ Does not mean that a person gets 60 percent of her height from
genetics and 40 percent from environment.
○ Heritability estimates aid in identifying the causes of differences between
individuals in a population.
○ Remember: heritability refers to the distribution of a trait within a group, not to
particular persons.
Darwin’s evolution theory
● Evolution by natural selection.
● Three conditions for natural selection:
1. There is variation among individuals of a populations.
2. Individuals with a certain trait survive and produce at higher rates that others.
3. The trait associated with this advantage is passed from parents to offspring.
● This specific trait will be better represented in the next generation.
● Organisms differ in genotype and variations in genotype are passed from generation
to generation.
● What matters is the survival of genes, not the survival of individuals.
Evidence for modern evolutionary theory comes from many sources
● The fossil record.
● The resemblance between genomes of various organisms.
● Pseudogenes (inactive gene)
○ Doesn’t function evermore
● Distribution of species around the world
Somehow improves organisms
● Can only lead to rigid behavioral patterns.
, ● Some genes survived because they had a positive chance of survival for the animal.
Nature versus nurture
● The nature (genes) nurture (environment).
Who we are is determined by how our genes are expressed in distinct environments.
● Behavior is depended on environment and genes.
Behavioral genetics
● The study of how genes and environment interact to influence psychological activity.
● Methods:
○ Twin studies
○ Adoption studies
● Heritability (H) (erfelijkheid)
○ H=genetic variance/phenotypic variance
Epigenetics
● The study of how environment affects genetic expression.
○ They found that various environmental exposures do not alter DNA (can’t be
altered mafkees), but they do alter DNA expression.
● These changes in how DNA is expressed can be passed along to future generations.
○ Rats of stressed mothers are for example more likely to become stressed.
● A simple way to think about epigenetic processes is that a parent’s experiences
create tags on DNA that tell it when to express, and these tags are passed along with
the DNA.
○ Then they may be passed along to future generations.
Genetic modifications
● Researchers can insert a gene from one animal species into the embryo of another.
○ The researchers can then compare the genetically modified animal with an
unmodified one to test theories about the affected gene his function.
● Changing even a single gene can dramatically change behavior.
○ The effect of one gene be turned on or off leads to the expression or non
expression of a series of other genes.
■ This can influence even complex behaviors.
○ So in other words, genes seldom work in isolation to influence mind and
behavior.
■ Complex interaction among thousands of genes gives rise to the
complexity of human experience.
Optogenetics
● October 21, 2019, 15:15-17:30 (check nog een keer voor tentamen)
● Multiple-choice
Week 1, college 1
Introduction
Psychology
● The study of mind, brain and behavior
● Using the scientific method
Chapter 1, science of psychology (p. 3-6)
Genetics:
● How characteristics such as height, hair color and eye color are passed along to
offspring.
○ How a cell becomes for example a muscle cell is determined by which genes
are turned on or off.
Genome:
● The master blueprint that provides detailed instructions for everything of the human
body.
The genetic basis
● Every nucleus (celkern) contains 23 chromosome pairs
○ One pair of the chromosome comes from the mother, one from the father.
○ Each parent contributes half of a person’s DNA.
■ Half of his or her genes.
● Chromosomes are made up of coiled strands of DNA.
● The DNA molecule has a double helix shape.
● The double helix is made up of complementary chains
Gene
● Gene: meaningful sections of the DNA molecule
○ Each gene specifies an exact instruction to make a distinct polypeptide.
○ One or more polypeptides make up a protein.
● Govern the cell’s functioning by providing instructions for making proteins.
○ The environment determines which proteins are produced and when they are
produced.
● A gene codes for a protein.
,Gene expression
● Determines the body’s physical makeup.
● Determines specific developments throughout life.
● Whether a gene is turned on or off.
○ Environmental factors can affect gene expression.
○ Also internal factors can cause the turning on and turning off of genes.
● Whether a gene is transcribed into a sequence of amino acids.
● Every cell has the same nucleus, but look and function different because of gene
expression.
● Whether a gene is transcribed depends by the biochemical environment inside the
cell.
○ The biochemical environment inside the cell is influenced by:
■ The environment outside the cell.
■ Timing in development
■ The overall environment
■ Experience
■ Behavior.
Genotype
● An organism’s specific set of genes.
○ It’s determined and never changes.
Phenotype
● The organism’s observable physical characteristics.
○ Is always changing
● This develops because of the interaction between genotype and environment.
Polygenic effects
● When a population displays a range of variability for a certain characteristic.
○ In other words, the trait is influenced by many genes (as well as by
environment).
Sexual reproduction
● The 23 chromosome pairs of normal cells contain also sex chromosomes, Y and X.
○ Females: two X chromosomes (XX)
○ Males: one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
● egg and sperm cells have 23 chromosomes
● Each gene is paired with another gene.
● Allele is one specific variant of a gene.
Homozygote: alleles on locus are the same
heterozygote: alleles on locus are different
● Can be that one alles is dominant over the other.
● Other alleles are recessive
○ This gene only is expressed when it’s matched with a similar gene from the
other parent.
,A specific trait or behavior is determined by the interaction between the environment and:
● One gene pair.
● Multiple gene pairs: polygenetic inheritance.
Heritability
● Heredity is the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring by means of
genes.
● Heritability
○ Refers to the proportion of the variation in some specific trait in a population
that is due to genetics (A statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in
a trait within a population is due to genetics).
○ The trait cannot be due to environment or random chance.
○ To know the heritability of a trait, we need to know how much people vary in
that trait.
■ Once you know the variation, we can see whether people who are
related show less variation than people chosen at random.
○ When for example a trait has a heritability of .60, this means that 60 percent
of the variation in height among people is genetic.
■ Does not mean that a person gets 60 percent of her height from
genetics and 40 percent from environment.
○ Heritability estimates aid in identifying the causes of differences between
individuals in a population.
○ Remember: heritability refers to the distribution of a trait within a group, not to
particular persons.
Darwin’s evolution theory
● Evolution by natural selection.
● Three conditions for natural selection:
1. There is variation among individuals of a populations.
2. Individuals with a certain trait survive and produce at higher rates that others.
3. The trait associated with this advantage is passed from parents to offspring.
● This specific trait will be better represented in the next generation.
● Organisms differ in genotype and variations in genotype are passed from generation
to generation.
● What matters is the survival of genes, not the survival of individuals.
Evidence for modern evolutionary theory comes from many sources
● The fossil record.
● The resemblance between genomes of various organisms.
● Pseudogenes (inactive gene)
○ Doesn’t function evermore
● Distribution of species around the world
Somehow improves organisms
● Can only lead to rigid behavioral patterns.
, ● Some genes survived because they had a positive chance of survival for the animal.
Nature versus nurture
● The nature (genes) nurture (environment).
Who we are is determined by how our genes are expressed in distinct environments.
● Behavior is depended on environment and genes.
Behavioral genetics
● The study of how genes and environment interact to influence psychological activity.
● Methods:
○ Twin studies
○ Adoption studies
● Heritability (H) (erfelijkheid)
○ H=genetic variance/phenotypic variance
Epigenetics
● The study of how environment affects genetic expression.
○ They found that various environmental exposures do not alter DNA (can’t be
altered mafkees), but they do alter DNA expression.
● These changes in how DNA is expressed can be passed along to future generations.
○ Rats of stressed mothers are for example more likely to become stressed.
● A simple way to think about epigenetic processes is that a parent’s experiences
create tags on DNA that tell it when to express, and these tags are passed along with
the DNA.
○ Then they may be passed along to future generations.
Genetic modifications
● Researchers can insert a gene from one animal species into the embryo of another.
○ The researchers can then compare the genetically modified animal with an
unmodified one to test theories about the affected gene his function.
● Changing even a single gene can dramatically change behavior.
○ The effect of one gene be turned on or off leads to the expression or non
expression of a series of other genes.
■ This can influence even complex behaviors.
○ So in other words, genes seldom work in isolation to influence mind and
behavior.
■ Complex interaction among thousands of genes gives rise to the
complexity of human experience.
Optogenetics
