Memory In this section we will consider the two types of memory, explicit memory and implicit
memory, and then the three major memory stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term (Atkinson &
Shiffrin, 1968). [1] Then, in the next section, we will consider the nature of longterm memory, with a
particular emphasis on the cognitive techniques we can use to improve our memories. Our
discussion will focus on the three processes that are central to long-term memory: encoding,
storage, and retrieval. Table 8.1 Memory Conceptualized in Terms of Types, Stages, and Processes As
types Explicit memory Implicit memory As stages Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-
termmemory As processes Encoding Storage Retrieval Explicit Memory When we assess memory by
asking a person to consciously remember things, we are measuring explicit memory. Explicit
memory refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. As you can see in
Figure 8.2 "Types of Memory", there are two types of explicit memory: episodic andsemantic.
Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences that we have had (e.g., recollections of our high
school graduation day or of the fantastic dinner we had in New York last year). Semantic memory
refers to our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is
greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition of the word “affect” is “the experience
of feeling or emotion”)
Explicit memory is assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must consciously
attempt to remember the information. Arecall memory test is a measure of explicit memory that
involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered. We rely on our
recall memory when we take an essay test, because the test requires us to generate previously
remembered information. A multiple-choice test is an example of a recognition memory test, a
measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or
learned before. Your own experiences taking tests will probably lead you to agree with the scientific
research finding that recall is more difficult than recognition. Recall, such as required on essay tests,
involves two steps: first generating an answer and then determining whether it seems to be the
correct one. Recognition, as on multiple-choice test, only involves determining which item from a list
seems most correct (Haist, Shimamura, & Squire, 1992). [2] Although they involve different
processes, recall and recognition memory measures tend to be correlated. Students who do better
on a multiple-choice exam will also, by and large, do better on an essay exam (Bridgeman & Morgan,
1996). [3] A third way of measuring memory is known as relearning (Nelson, 1985). [4]Measures of
relearning (or savings) assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is
studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten. If you have taken some French
courses in the past, for instance, you might have forgotten most of the vocabulary you learned. But
if you were to work on your French again, you’d learn the vocabulary much faster the second time
around. Relearning can be a more sensitive measure of memory than either Saylor URL:
http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 3 recall or recognition because it allows assessing memory
in terms of “how much” or “how fast” rather than simply “correct” versus “incorrect” responses.
Relearning also allows us to measure memory for procedures like driving a car or playing a piano
piece, as well as memory for facts and figures. Implicit Memory While explicit memory consists of
the things that we can consciously report that we know, implicit memory refers to knowledge that
we cannot consciously access. However, implicit memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to
us because it has a direct effect on our behavior. Implicit memory refers to the influence of
experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences. As you can see in
Figure 8.2 "Types of Memory", there are three general types of implicit memory: procedural
memory, classical conditioning effects, and priming. Procedural memory refers to our often
unexplainable knowledge of how to do things. When we walk from one place to another, speak to
memory, and then the three major memory stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term (Atkinson &
Shiffrin, 1968). [1] Then, in the next section, we will consider the nature of longterm memory, with a
particular emphasis on the cognitive techniques we can use to improve our memories. Our
discussion will focus on the three processes that are central to long-term memory: encoding,
storage, and retrieval. Table 8.1 Memory Conceptualized in Terms of Types, Stages, and Processes As
types Explicit memory Implicit memory As stages Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-
termmemory As processes Encoding Storage Retrieval Explicit Memory When we assess memory by
asking a person to consciously remember things, we are measuring explicit memory. Explicit
memory refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. As you can see in
Figure 8.2 "Types of Memory", there are two types of explicit memory: episodic andsemantic.
Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences that we have had (e.g., recollections of our high
school graduation day or of the fantastic dinner we had in New York last year). Semantic memory
refers to our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is
greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition of the word “affect” is “the experience
of feeling or emotion”)
Explicit memory is assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must consciously
attempt to remember the information. Arecall memory test is a measure of explicit memory that
involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered. We rely on our
recall memory when we take an essay test, because the test requires us to generate previously
remembered information. A multiple-choice test is an example of a recognition memory test, a
measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or
learned before. Your own experiences taking tests will probably lead you to agree with the scientific
research finding that recall is more difficult than recognition. Recall, such as required on essay tests,
involves two steps: first generating an answer and then determining whether it seems to be the
correct one. Recognition, as on multiple-choice test, only involves determining which item from a list
seems most correct (Haist, Shimamura, & Squire, 1992). [2] Although they involve different
processes, recall and recognition memory measures tend to be correlated. Students who do better
on a multiple-choice exam will also, by and large, do better on an essay exam (Bridgeman & Morgan,
1996). [3] A third way of measuring memory is known as relearning (Nelson, 1985). [4]Measures of
relearning (or savings) assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is
studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten. If you have taken some French
courses in the past, for instance, you might have forgotten most of the vocabulary you learned. But
if you were to work on your French again, you’d learn the vocabulary much faster the second time
around. Relearning can be a more sensitive measure of memory than either Saylor URL:
http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 3 recall or recognition because it allows assessing memory
in terms of “how much” or “how fast” rather than simply “correct” versus “incorrect” responses.
Relearning also allows us to measure memory for procedures like driving a car or playing a piano
piece, as well as memory for facts and figures. Implicit Memory While explicit memory consists of
the things that we can consciously report that we know, implicit memory refers to knowledge that
we cannot consciously access. However, implicit memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to
us because it has a direct effect on our behavior. Implicit memory refers to the influence of
experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences. As you can see in
Figure 8.2 "Types of Memory", there are three general types of implicit memory: procedural
memory, classical conditioning effects, and priming. Procedural memory refers to our often
unexplainable knowledge of how to do things. When we walk from one place to another, speak to
