Marketing 2
“Consumer behavior” – chapter 2-6
,Table of contents
Chapter 2 – Motivation, ability and opportunity .................................................................................... 5
Consumer motivation and its effects .................................................................................................. 5
High-effort behaviour ...................................................................................................................... 5
High-effort information processing and decision making ............................................................... 5
Felt involvement .............................................................................................................................. 5
What affects motivation? .................................................................................................................... 6
Personal relevance .......................................................................................................................... 6
Values .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Needs ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Goals ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Goals and emotions ......................................................................................................................... 8
Self-control and goal conflict........................................................................................................... 9
Perceived risk .................................................................................................................................. 9
Inconsistency with attitudes ......................................................................................................... 10
Consumer ability: resources to act .................................................................................................... 10
Financial resources ........................................................................................................................ 10
Cognitive resources ....................................................................................................................... 10 2
Emotional resources ...................................................................................................................... 11
Physical resources ......................................................................................................................... 11
Social and cultural resources ......................................................................................................... 11
Education and age ......................................................................................................................... 11
Consumer opportunity ...................................................................................................................... 11
Time ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Distraction ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Complexity, amount, repetition, and control of information ....................................................... 11
Chapter 3 – From exposure to comprehension .................................................................................... 12
Exposure and consumer behaviour ................................................................................................... 12
Factors influencing exposure ........................................................................................................ 12
Selective exposure......................................................................................................................... 12
Attention and consumer behaviour .................................................................................................. 12
Characteristics of attention ........................................................................................................... 12
Focal and non-focal attention ....................................................................................................... 13
Customer segments defined by attention..................................................................................... 13
, Habituation .................................................................................................................................... 13
Perception and consumer behaviour ................................................................................................ 13
Perceiving through vision .............................................................................................................. 14
Perceiving through hearing ........................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through taste ............................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through smell ............................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through touch .............................................................................................................. 14
When do we perceive stimuli? ...................................................................................................... 14
How do consumers perceive a stimulus? ...................................................................................... 15
Comprehension and consumer behaviour ........................................................................................ 15
Source identification ..................................................................................................................... 16
Message comprehension .............................................................................................................. 16
Consumer inferences..................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4 – Memory and knowledge .................................................................................................... 17
What is memory? .............................................................................................................................. 17
Sensory memory............................................................................................................................ 17
Working memory........................................................................................................................... 18
3
Long-term memory........................................................................................................................ 18
Explicit memory, implicit memory and processing fluency........................................................... 18
How memory is enhanced ............................................................................................................. 19
Knowledge content, structure and flexibility .................................................................................... 19
Knowledge content: schemas and scripts ..................................................................................... 19
Knowledge structure: categories .................................................................................................. 21
Knowledge flexibility ..................................................................................................................... 22
Why consumers differ in knowledge content and structure ........................................................ 22
Memory and retrieval ....................................................................................................................... 22
Retrieval failures............................................................................................................................ 23
Retrieval errors .............................................................................................................................. 23
Enhancing retrieval ........................................................................................................................ 23
Chapter 5 – Attitudes based on high effort........................................................................................... 24
What are attitudes? .......................................................................................................................... 24
The importance of attitudes.......................................................................................................... 24
The characteristics of attitudes ..................................................................................................... 24
Forming and changing attitudes .................................................................................................... 24
, The cognitive foundations of attitudes ............................................................................................. 25
Direct or imagined experience ...................................................................................................... 25
Reasoning by analogy or category................................................................................................. 25
Values-driven attitudes ................................................................................................................. 25
Social identity-based attitude generation ..................................................................................... 25
Analytical process of attitude formation....................................................................................... 25
How cognitive based attitudes are influenced .................................................................................. 27
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 27
The message .................................................................................................................................. 27
The affective (emotional) foundations of attitudes .......................................................................... 29
How affective based attitudes are influenced .................................................................................. 30
The Source ..................................................................................................................................... 30
The message .................................................................................................................................. 30
Attitude toward the ad ...................................................................................................................... 31
When do attitudes predict behaviour? ............................................................................................. 31
Chapter 6 – Attitudes based on low effort ............................................................................................ 32
High-effort versus low-effort routes to persuasion .......................................................................... 32
4
Unconscious influences on attitudes when consumer effort is low ................................................. 33
Thin-slice judgements.................................................................................................................... 33
Body feedback ............................................................................................................................... 33
Cognitive bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low ............................................................... 33
How cognitive attitudes are influenced ............................................................................................ 33
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 33
The message .................................................................................................................................. 34
Message context and repetition ................................................................................................... 34
Affective bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low................................................................ 34
The mere exposure effect ............................................................................................................. 34
Classical and evaluate conditioning .............................................................................................. 35
Attitude toward the ad .................................................................................................................. 35
Mood ............................................................................................................................................. 35
How affective attitudes are influenced ............................................................................................. 36
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 36
The message .................................................................................................................................. 37
,Chapter 2 – Motivation, ability and opportunity
Consumer motivation and its effects
Motivation: an inner state of arousal that provides energy needed to achieve a goal
High-effort behaviour
One outcome of motivation is behaviour that takes considerable effect. Motivation not
only drives behaviour consistent with a goal but also creates a willingness to expend
time and energy engaging in these behaviours. Consumers try to match anticipated
and actual effort.
High-effort information processing and decision making
Motivation also affects how people process information and make decisions. Highly
motivated more effort. When consumers have low motivation, they devote little
effort to processing information and making decisions. They may use decision-
making shortcuts cheapest product, same as always.
Motivated reasoning: processing information in a way that allows consumers to
reach the conclusion that they want to reach
Consumers are particularly prone to motivated reasoning when their self-esteem is at
stake or when they desperately hope to achieve a particular goal or avoid a negative
outcome.
Felt involvement
Felt involvement: self-reported arousal or interest in an offering, activity, or 5
decision
Types of involvement
Enduring involvement: long-term interest in an offering, activity, or decision
Cognitive involvement: interest in thinking about and learning information
pertinent to an offering, activity, or decision
Affective involvement: interest in expending emotional energy and evoking deep
feelings about an offering, activity, or decision
Situational (temporary) involvement: temporary interest in an offering, activity, or
decision, often caused by situational
circumstances
Objects of involvement
Consumers may exhibit cognitive and / or affective involvement in objects, including a
product or retail category and experiences. This involvement is also possible with a
brand by being emotionally attached and involved with a brand. brand extension
of oneself, feels great deal of passion toward brand. Consumers can also be involved
with ads that are interesting or relevant to them or be involved with a medium or with
a particular article or show in which an ad is placed.
Response involvement: interest in certain decisions and behaviours
, It is important to specify the object of involvement when using the term involvement.
People are motivated to behave, process information, or engage in effortful decision
making about things that they feel are personally relevant. And people will
experience considerable involvement when buying, using, or disposing of them.
People are also motivated to think deeply about issues pertinent to a given decision
when they believe they will have to justify or explain their decisions.
What affects motivation?
It is important for marketers to understand what affects motivation able to predict
consumers’ motivation.
Personal relevance
Personal relevance: something that has a direct bearing on the self and has
potentially significant consequences or implications for our
lives
Consistency with self-concept
Self-concept: our mental view of who we are
Self-concept helps people define who they are, and it frequently motivates people’s
behaviour.
Values
Values: abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right/wrong, important, or
good/bad
Consumers are more motivated to attend to and process information when they find it 6
relevant to their values
Needs
Need: an internal state of tension caused by disequilibrium from an
ideal/desired physical or psychological state
Consumers find things personally relevant when they have a bearing of activated
needs. Once you are motivated to satisfy particular need, objects unrelated to that
need seem less attractive. Needs can lead people away from a product or service.
According to Maslow there are five categories of needs:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Social needs
4. Egoistic needs
5. Self-actualisation needs
Within this hierarchy, lower-level needs generally must be satisfied before higher-
level needs become activated. This is, however, too simplistic. Needs are not always
ordered in that hierarchy, may feel different needs than the corresponding category, it
ignores intensity of needs and the resulting effect on motivation and the ordering of
needs may not be consistent across cultures.
Types of needs
Social needs: externally directed need that are related to other individuals
fulfilling requires the presence or actions of other people
“Consumer behavior” – chapter 2-6
,Table of contents
Chapter 2 – Motivation, ability and opportunity .................................................................................... 5
Consumer motivation and its effects .................................................................................................. 5
High-effort behaviour ...................................................................................................................... 5
High-effort information processing and decision making ............................................................... 5
Felt involvement .............................................................................................................................. 5
What affects motivation? .................................................................................................................... 6
Personal relevance .......................................................................................................................... 6
Values .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Needs ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Goals ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Goals and emotions ......................................................................................................................... 8
Self-control and goal conflict........................................................................................................... 9
Perceived risk .................................................................................................................................. 9
Inconsistency with attitudes ......................................................................................................... 10
Consumer ability: resources to act .................................................................................................... 10
Financial resources ........................................................................................................................ 10
Cognitive resources ....................................................................................................................... 10 2
Emotional resources ...................................................................................................................... 11
Physical resources ......................................................................................................................... 11
Social and cultural resources ......................................................................................................... 11
Education and age ......................................................................................................................... 11
Consumer opportunity ...................................................................................................................... 11
Time ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Distraction ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Complexity, amount, repetition, and control of information ....................................................... 11
Chapter 3 – From exposure to comprehension .................................................................................... 12
Exposure and consumer behaviour ................................................................................................... 12
Factors influencing exposure ........................................................................................................ 12
Selective exposure......................................................................................................................... 12
Attention and consumer behaviour .................................................................................................. 12
Characteristics of attention ........................................................................................................... 12
Focal and non-focal attention ....................................................................................................... 13
Customer segments defined by attention..................................................................................... 13
, Habituation .................................................................................................................................... 13
Perception and consumer behaviour ................................................................................................ 13
Perceiving through vision .............................................................................................................. 14
Perceiving through hearing ........................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through taste ............................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through smell ............................................................................................................... 14
Perceiving through touch .............................................................................................................. 14
When do we perceive stimuli? ...................................................................................................... 14
How do consumers perceive a stimulus? ...................................................................................... 15
Comprehension and consumer behaviour ........................................................................................ 15
Source identification ..................................................................................................................... 16
Message comprehension .............................................................................................................. 16
Consumer inferences..................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 4 – Memory and knowledge .................................................................................................... 17
What is memory? .............................................................................................................................. 17
Sensory memory............................................................................................................................ 17
Working memory........................................................................................................................... 18
3
Long-term memory........................................................................................................................ 18
Explicit memory, implicit memory and processing fluency........................................................... 18
How memory is enhanced ............................................................................................................. 19
Knowledge content, structure and flexibility .................................................................................... 19
Knowledge content: schemas and scripts ..................................................................................... 19
Knowledge structure: categories .................................................................................................. 21
Knowledge flexibility ..................................................................................................................... 22
Why consumers differ in knowledge content and structure ........................................................ 22
Memory and retrieval ....................................................................................................................... 22
Retrieval failures............................................................................................................................ 23
Retrieval errors .............................................................................................................................. 23
Enhancing retrieval ........................................................................................................................ 23
Chapter 5 – Attitudes based on high effort........................................................................................... 24
What are attitudes? .......................................................................................................................... 24
The importance of attitudes.......................................................................................................... 24
The characteristics of attitudes ..................................................................................................... 24
Forming and changing attitudes .................................................................................................... 24
, The cognitive foundations of attitudes ............................................................................................. 25
Direct or imagined experience ...................................................................................................... 25
Reasoning by analogy or category................................................................................................. 25
Values-driven attitudes ................................................................................................................. 25
Social identity-based attitude generation ..................................................................................... 25
Analytical process of attitude formation....................................................................................... 25
How cognitive based attitudes are influenced .................................................................................. 27
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 27
The message .................................................................................................................................. 27
The affective (emotional) foundations of attitudes .......................................................................... 29
How affective based attitudes are influenced .................................................................................. 30
The Source ..................................................................................................................................... 30
The message .................................................................................................................................. 30
Attitude toward the ad ...................................................................................................................... 31
When do attitudes predict behaviour? ............................................................................................. 31
Chapter 6 – Attitudes based on low effort ............................................................................................ 32
High-effort versus low-effort routes to persuasion .......................................................................... 32
4
Unconscious influences on attitudes when consumer effort is low ................................................. 33
Thin-slice judgements.................................................................................................................... 33
Body feedback ............................................................................................................................... 33
Cognitive bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low ............................................................... 33
How cognitive attitudes are influenced ............................................................................................ 33
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 33
The message .................................................................................................................................. 34
Message context and repetition ................................................................................................... 34
Affective bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low................................................................ 34
The mere exposure effect ............................................................................................................. 34
Classical and evaluate conditioning .............................................................................................. 35
Attitude toward the ad .................................................................................................................. 35
Mood ............................................................................................................................................. 35
How affective attitudes are influenced ............................................................................................. 36
Communication source ................................................................................................................. 36
The message .................................................................................................................................. 37
,Chapter 2 – Motivation, ability and opportunity
Consumer motivation and its effects
Motivation: an inner state of arousal that provides energy needed to achieve a goal
High-effort behaviour
One outcome of motivation is behaviour that takes considerable effect. Motivation not
only drives behaviour consistent with a goal but also creates a willingness to expend
time and energy engaging in these behaviours. Consumers try to match anticipated
and actual effort.
High-effort information processing and decision making
Motivation also affects how people process information and make decisions. Highly
motivated more effort. When consumers have low motivation, they devote little
effort to processing information and making decisions. They may use decision-
making shortcuts cheapest product, same as always.
Motivated reasoning: processing information in a way that allows consumers to
reach the conclusion that they want to reach
Consumers are particularly prone to motivated reasoning when their self-esteem is at
stake or when they desperately hope to achieve a particular goal or avoid a negative
outcome.
Felt involvement
Felt involvement: self-reported arousal or interest in an offering, activity, or 5
decision
Types of involvement
Enduring involvement: long-term interest in an offering, activity, or decision
Cognitive involvement: interest in thinking about and learning information
pertinent to an offering, activity, or decision
Affective involvement: interest in expending emotional energy and evoking deep
feelings about an offering, activity, or decision
Situational (temporary) involvement: temporary interest in an offering, activity, or
decision, often caused by situational
circumstances
Objects of involvement
Consumers may exhibit cognitive and / or affective involvement in objects, including a
product or retail category and experiences. This involvement is also possible with a
brand by being emotionally attached and involved with a brand. brand extension
of oneself, feels great deal of passion toward brand. Consumers can also be involved
with ads that are interesting or relevant to them or be involved with a medium or with
a particular article or show in which an ad is placed.
Response involvement: interest in certain decisions and behaviours
, It is important to specify the object of involvement when using the term involvement.
People are motivated to behave, process information, or engage in effortful decision
making about things that they feel are personally relevant. And people will
experience considerable involvement when buying, using, or disposing of them.
People are also motivated to think deeply about issues pertinent to a given decision
when they believe they will have to justify or explain their decisions.
What affects motivation?
It is important for marketers to understand what affects motivation able to predict
consumers’ motivation.
Personal relevance
Personal relevance: something that has a direct bearing on the self and has
potentially significant consequences or implications for our
lives
Consistency with self-concept
Self-concept: our mental view of who we are
Self-concept helps people define who they are, and it frequently motivates people’s
behaviour.
Values
Values: abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right/wrong, important, or
good/bad
Consumers are more motivated to attend to and process information when they find it 6
relevant to their values
Needs
Need: an internal state of tension caused by disequilibrium from an
ideal/desired physical or psychological state
Consumers find things personally relevant when they have a bearing of activated
needs. Once you are motivated to satisfy particular need, objects unrelated to that
need seem less attractive. Needs can lead people away from a product or service.
According to Maslow there are five categories of needs:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Social needs
4. Egoistic needs
5. Self-actualisation needs
Within this hierarchy, lower-level needs generally must be satisfied before higher-
level needs become activated. This is, however, too simplistic. Needs are not always
ordered in that hierarchy, may feel different needs than the corresponding category, it
ignores intensity of needs and the resulting effect on motivation and the ordering of
needs may not be consistent across cultures.
Types of needs
Social needs: externally directed need that are related to other individuals
fulfilling requires the presence or actions of other people
