Summary Social Change and Inequality in Europe

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SOCIAL‌‌CHANGE‌‌AND‌‌ ‌
INEQUALITY‌‌IN‌‌EUROPE‌ ‌
2018-2019‌ ‌
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SOCIAL‌‌SCIENCES‌ ‌ ‌PROF.‌‌VERHAEGHE‌ ‌
D.L.Y.‌ ‌‌



‌

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1.‌‌MIGRATION‌‌HISTORY‌‌OF‌‌EUROPE‌ ‌
‌

1.‌‌MIGRATION‌‌IN‌‌THE‌‌AFTERMATH‌‌OF‌‌DECOLONIZATION‌ ‌

● Decolonization‌‌process‌‌started‌‌during‌‌the‌‌interbellum,‌‌enforced‌‌after‌‌WWII‌‌and‌‌the‌‌Cold‌‌War‌ ‌
● Metropoles:‌‌Britain,‌‌France,‌‌Italy,‌‌Belgium,‌‌Netherlands,‌‌Portugal‌ ‌
○ Most‌‌important‌‌colonies:‌ ‌
■ Britain:‌‌India,‌‌South‌‌Africa,‌‌ ■ Belgium:‌‌Congo‌ ‌
Kenya‌ ‌ ■ Netherlands:‌‌Indonesia,‌‌Caribbean‌‌Islands,‌‌
■ France:‌‌Algeria‌‌ ‌ Suriname‌ ‌
■ Italy:‌‌Ethiopia,‌‌Libya‌‌ ‌ ■ Portugal:‌‌Angola,‌‌Mozambique,‌‌Cape‌‌Verde‌ ‌

○ Why‌‌wasn’t‌‌Germany‌‌a‌‌colonial‌‌power?‌‌ ‌
■ Bismarck‌‌diplomacy‌‌(1870-1890):‌‌want‌‌to‌‌be‌‌a‌‌go-in-between,‌‌a‌‌ruler‌‌of‌‌the‌‌game‌ ‌
● Euro-colonial‌‌migration‌‌‌=‌‌after‌‌decolonization‌‌many‌‌European‌‌settlers,‌‌military‌‌troops,‌…
‌ ‌‌(European‌‌origin!)‌‌
came‌‌back‌‌to‌‌Europe‌ ‌
○ E.g.‌‌India:‌‌British‌‌troops‌‌had‌‌to‌‌come‌‌back‌‌after‌‌India‌‌gained‌‌independence‌ ‌
● Colonial‌‌migration‌=‌ ‌‌locals‌‌-‌‌auxiliary‌‌troops‌‌for‌‌example‌‌-‌‌working‌‌for‌‌colonial‌‌powers‌‌who‌‌are‌‌
persecuted/discriminated‌‌against‌‌after‌‌decolonization‌‌process‌‌and‌‌therefore‌‌flee‌‌to‌‌Europe‌‌shortly‌‌after‌‌the‌‌
independency‌ ‌
○ E.g.‌‌Netherlands:‌‌hijacked‌‌train‌‌by‌‌Molukaus‌‌(ethnic‌‌Indonesian‌‌group,‌‌important‌‌migration‌‌group‌‌in‌‌
Netherlands)‌ ‌
○ E.g.‌‌France:‌‌Harkis‌‌locals‌‌from‌‌Algeria‌‌working‌‌in‌‌favour‌‌of‌‌the‌‌France,‌‌fled‌‌to‌‌France‌‌after‌‌the‌‌
independence‌‌ ‌
● Post-colonial‌‌migration‌‌‌=‌‌every‌‌migration‌‌related‌‌thing‌‌that‌‌happened‌‌a‌‌few‌‌years‌‌after‌‌independency‌‌from‌‌
former‌‌colonies‌‌to‌‌former‌‌metropoles,‌‌channeled‌‌by‌‌these‌‌former‌‌colonial‌‌links‌‌ ‌
○ Push‌‌factors:‌‌crisis,‌‌conflict‌ ‌
○ Pull‌‌factors:‌‌cheap‌‌labour‌‌in‌‌former‌‌metropoles‌ ‌
● Chain‌‌migration‌‌‌=‌‌phenomenon‌‌when‌‌migrants‌‌are‌‌following‌‌former‌‌migrants‌‌with‌‌an‌‌important‌‌ingredient‌‌
of‌‌information‌‌and‌‌social‌‌networks‌‌ ‌
○ Can‌‌be‌‌applied‌‌on‌‌post-colonial‌‌migration‌ ‌
○ But‌‌also‌‌existent‌‌in‌‌other‌‌movements‌‌(e‌ .g.‌‌family‌‌migration‌)‌ ‌
○ Determined‌‌from‌‌which‌‌countries‌‌you’re‌‌coming‌‌from‌‌and‌‌where‌‌you‌‌are‌‌going‌‌ ‌
■ E.g.‌‌first‌‌Turkish‌‌migrants‌‌went‌‌to‌‌DE,‌‌BE,‌‌…‌‌so‌‌other‌‌Turkish‌‌followed‌‌them,‌‌which‌‌is‌‌why‌‌
there‌‌aren’t‌‌many‌‌Turkish‌‌migrants‌‌in‌‌Switzerland‌‌for‌‌example‌ ‌
○ From‌‌a‌‌very‌‌specific‌‌area‌‌in‌‌country‌‌of‌‌origin‌‌to‌‌a‌‌very‌‌specific‌‌area‌‌in‌‌country‌‌of‌‌destination‌‌ ‌
■ E.g.‌‌Romanians‌‌in‌‌Brussels‌‌but‌‌not‌‌in‌‌Ghent‌ ‌
■ E.g.‌‌Nepalese‌‌communities‌‌in‌‌Belgium‌‌only‌‌in‌‌Bruges‌‌and‌‌Leuven‌ ‌
● Problems‌‌in‌‌countries‌‌of‌‌destination?‌ ‌
○ For‌‌post-colonial‌‌migrants:‌‌racist‌‌mental‌‌structures‌‌in‌‌heads‌‌of‌‌many‌‌europeans,‌‌even‌‌if‌‌
citizens/commonwealth‌ ‌

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2.‌‌LABOUR‌‌MIGRATION‌‌ ‌
● Labour‌‌migration‌‌(‘50s,‌‌‘60s,‌‌‘70s)‌ ‌
○ Recruited‌‌labour‌‌migration‌‌(bilateral‌‌treaties)‌ ‌
■ Officially‌‌recruited‌‌by‌‌the‌‌government‌
■ Cheap‌‌labour‌‌that‌‌natives‌‌didn’t‌‌want‌‌to‌‌do‌ ‌
■ E.g.‌‌first‌‌bilateral‌‌treaties‌‌signed‌‌with‌‌IT,‌‌known‌‌for‌‌high‌‌unemployment‌‌(BE,‌‌FR)‌→
‌ ‌‌needed‌‌
cheap‌‌labour‌‌to‌‌work‌‌in‌‌mining‌‌industry‌→
‌ ‌‌IT‌‌wanted‌‌to‌‌get‌‌rid‌‌of‌‌their‌‌communist‌‌elements‌‌
through‌‌labour‌‌migration,‌‌but‌‌BE‌‌didn’t‌‌want‌‌the‌‌communist‌‌migrants‌‌and‌‌sent‌‌them‌‌back‌ ‌
○ Unofficial‌‌labour‌‌migration‌ ‌
■ ⅔‌‌rd‌‌just‌‌came‌‌as‌‌tourists‌‌for‌‌example‌‌and‌‌got‌‌necessary‌‌documents‌‌afterwards‌ ‌
● Countries‌‌of‌‌origin‌‌and‌‌destination‌ ‌
○ ‘40s‌‌‘50s:‌‌IT‌‌to‌‌FR‌‌and‌‌BE‌ ‌
■ 1956‌‌mining‌‌disaster‌‌in‌‌BE‌→
‌ ‌‌stopped‌‌bilateral‌‌treaty‌‌between‌‌BE‌‌and‌‌IT‌ ‌
■ Replaced‌‌with‌‌treaties‌‌with‌‌SP,‌‌PT,‌‌GR‌‌(to‌‌FR,‌‌BE,‌‌and‌‌some‌‌extent‌‌the‌‌NL)‌‌ ‌
○ ‘60s:‌‌European‌‌migrants‌‌not‌‌enough‌ ‌
■ DE:‌‌ex-Yugoslavia‌‌&‌‌Turkey‌‌ ‌
■ FR:‌‌Morocco‌‌&‌‌Algeria‌ ‌
■ BE‌‌&‌‌NL:‌‌Morocco‌‌&‌‌Turkey‌ ‌
■ UK:‌‌India,‌‌Pakistan‌‌&‌‌Ireland‌ ‌
● Economic‌‌reasons‌ ‌

Migrants‌ ‌ Countries‌‌of‌‌origin‌ ‌ Countries‌‌of‌‌destination‌ ‌

Salary‌ ‌ Export‌‌of‌‌unemployment‌‌ ‌ Replacement‌‌function‌e‌ specially‌‌in‌‌
textile,‌‌fish‌‌and‌‌meat‌‌industry‌‌( jobs‌‌
Escape‌‌unemployment‌ ‌ Remittances‌‌(money‌‌sent‌‌back‌
natives‌‌didn’t‌‌want‌‌to‌‌do‌‌anymore‌‌
to‌‌country‌‌of‌‌origin‌‌by‌‌migrant‌‌
were‌‌done‌‌by‌‌the‌‌migrants,‌‌which‌‌
labourers)‌ ‌
determined‌‌their‌‌social‌‌mobility)‌ ‌

Expansion‌‌in‌‌function‌‌of‌‌economic‌‌
sectors‌‌‌(needed‌‌additional‌‌labourers‌‌
for‌‌especially‌‌coal‌‌and‌‌mine‌‌industry‌‌
&‌‌heavy‌‌industry)‌ ‌

Buffer‌‌function‌‌‌(economic‌‌cycle)‌ ‌


● Follows‌‌(downward)‌‌economic‌‌cycles‌ ‌
○ Export‌‌unemployment‌‌-‌‌migrants‌‌were‌‌sent‌‌back‌‌to‌‌country‌‌of‌‌origin‌‌ ‌
○ See‌‌it‌‌as‌‌a‌‌liberal‌‌policy‌‌(already‌‌in‌‌19th‌‌century)‌ ‌
■ Need‌‌labourers:‌‌attract‌‌labour‌‌migration‌ ‌vs.‌‌if‌‌economy‌‌down:‌‌push‌‌labourers‌‌way‌‌ ‌
■ Labour‌‌migration‌‌in‌‌function‌‌of‌‌economy‌‌until‌‌‘70s‌‌and‌‌even‌‌until‌‌today,‌‌however‌‌it‌‌is‌‌more‌‌
complex‌‌due‌‌to‌‌legislation‌ ‌

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2.1.‌‌Labour‌‌migration‌‌ban‌‌of‌‌the‌‌‘70s‌‌ ‌
● Labour‌‌migration‌‌and‌‌recruitment‌‌ban‌‌ ‌
○ Economic‌‌crisis‌‌1973-1974‌‌ ‌ ○ Uprising‌‌anti-migration‌‌climate‌‌in‌‌western‌‌Europe‌ ‌
● Different‌‌impact‌‌on‌‌migrants‌ ‌
○ Ineffective‌‌for‌‌some‌‌labour‌‌migrant‌‌groups:‌‌many‌‌working‌‌already‌‌unofficially‌→
‌ ‌‌got‌‌papers,‌‌
transition‌‌phase‌ ‌
○ Biggest‌‌problem‌‌for‌‌Turkish,‌‌Yugoslavian,‌‌Moroccan‌‌people‌‌ ‌
● Temporary‌‌or‌‌circular‌‌‘work‌‌stay’‌‌(‘60s)‌‌→‌‌‘permanent’‌‌migration‌‌(‘70s)‌ ‌
○ ⇒
‘60s:‌‌migrant‌‌networks‌‌scattered‌‌in‌‌cities‌‌ ‌‌‘70s:‌‌many‌‌migrants‌‌chose‌‌to‌‌stay‌‌and‌‌get‌‌papers‌ ‌
○ Chain‌‌migration‌‌&‌‌family‌‌migration‌‌once‌‌they‌‌got‌‌papers‌ ‌
■ Family‌‌migration‌‌due‌‌to‌‌the‌‌right‌‌to‌‌family‌‌protection‌‌that‌‌was‌‌guaranteed‌‌by‌‌European‌‌
legislation‌ ‌
■ After‌‌ban:‌‌labour‌‌migration‌‌replaced‌‌by‌‌family‌‌migration‌‌(up‌‌until‌‌today‌‌many‌‌migrants‌‌still‌‌
come‌‌to‌‌western‌‌Europe‌‌in‌‌form‌‌of‌‌family‌‌migration)‌ ‌
■ Marriage‌‌migration,‌‌family‌‌unification,‌…
‌ ‌‌ ‌
■ Numbers‌‌of‌‌migrants‌‌rose‌‌sharply‌ ‌
● Institutional‌‌completeness‌=‌ ‌‌for‌‌every‌‌institution‌‌in‌‌country‌‌of‌‌destination‌‌there‌‌is‌‌an‌‌ethnic‌‌minority‌‌
institution‌‌providing‌‌the‌‌same‌‌needs‌ ‌
○ People‌‌can‌‌live‌‌in‌‌their‌‌own‌‌ethnic‌‌minority‌‌community‌ ‌
○ Consequence‌‌and‌‌cause‌‌of‌‌chain‌‌migration‌‌ ‌
■ Rising‌‌numbers‌‌=‌‌large‌‌group‌‌to‌‌integrate‌‌in‌‌institutional‌‌completeness‌‌ ‌
■ At‌‌same‌‌time‌‌attracting‌‌more‌‌migrants‌‌ ‌
● Transplanted‌‌communities‌‌‌=‌‌denote‌‌under‌‌phenomenon‌‌that‌‌it‌‌was‌‌a‌‌big‌‌chain‌‌migration‌‌from‌‌a‌‌very‌‌specific‌‌
region‌‌in‌‌country‌‌of‌‌origin‌‌to‌‌destination,‌‌therefore‌‌they‌‌transplant‌‌all‌‌their‌‌conflicts,‌‌cooperations,‌…
‌ .‌‌to‌‌
their‌‌country‌‌of‌‌destination‌ ‌
○ E.g.‌‌some‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌Turkish‌‌communities‌‌in‌‌BE‌‌have‌‌a‌‌big‌‌deal‌‌with‌‌the‌‌Kurdian‌‌problem‌ ‌
● Beginning‌‌of‌‌‘Fortress‌‌Europe’‌ ‌

2.2.‌‌Illustrations‌ ‌

‌
“The‌‌recruitment‌‌and‌‌immigration‌‌ban‌‌of‌‌the‌‌early‌‌
1970s‌‌usually‌‌had‌‌only‌‌a‌‌short-term‌‌effect,‌‌and‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
long‌‌term‌‌sometimes‌‌even‌‌worked‌‌against‌‌its‌‌objectives”‌‌
‌
-‌‌Bade,‌‌K.‌‌(2003),‌‌p.231‌ ‌
‌

● More‌‌Yugoslavian‌‌people‌‌chose‌‌to‌‌stay‌‌and‌‌get‌‌ ● Place‌‌in‌‌Turkey‌‌clearly‌‌focussing‌‌on‌‌migration‌‌ ‌
papers‌ ‌ ● ⅔‌‌rd‌‌of‌‌local‌‌youth‌‌answered‌‌in‌‌survey‌‌they‌‌want‌‌
to‌‌go‌‌to‌‌western‌‌Europe‌‌as‌‌a‌‌marriage‌‌partner‌ ‌


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