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Notes ‘25
Lecture 1 - General introduction and motivation
Performance is potential performance minus the performance losses. You can avoid performance losses
by making use of mental training. Mental training entails focussing on “how you play” while ignoring
internal and external distractions, this helps the athlete to remain composed. Over time mental training can
cause performance to increase. As a result of mental training mental toughness develops, this is the
psychological quality that enables a person to deal more effectively with pressure, setbacks and
challenges, and to persevere despite obstacles.
Applied sport psychology (a sub-field of performance psychology) is about enhancing athletes’
performance and helping them reach their potential, rather than addressing mental health issues.
Psychologists are able to help sport competitors enhance their athletic performance by increasing their
performance gains and preventing their performance losses.
There are 4 aspects of athletic performance: the physical aspect which entails the bodily condition. The
technical aspect, which encompasses the specific skills and movements required for the respective
sport. The tactical aspect, which deals with strategy and ability to make the right choices. And most
importantly in this course: the psychological aspect. This concerns the mental state such as focus, self-
confidence, motivation, emotion regulation and mental toughness.
The mental toughness model consists of 4C’s. First, Control: the capacity to feel and act as if one could
exert an influence in the situation in question. Second, Challenge: the habit of perceiving potentially
stressful situations as positive opportunities rather than as threats. Third, Commitment: the stickability or
the extent to which an individual is likely to persist with a goal or work task. These three personality
characteristics together make another personality trait called ‘hardiness’ and enable people to migitate
Notes ‘25 1
, the adverse effects of stressful situations. The fourth C that the mental toughness model adds is
Confidence: a strong belief in one’s ability to complete a task succesfully.
Sports are not just mental, if people lack the competence (fitness, strength, technical and tactical skills),
the mental piece is completely irrelevant. That’s because the competence determines fluctuations in
performance. But when competing against an opponent of similar ability, mental factors make the
difference. That is because mental factors are more sensitive to pressure situations than physical,
technical and tactical factors.
You cannot determine the weight of each separate component of the four aspects of athletic
performance, because the weight is a function of person, time, context and moment. Besides, the
different components (body and mind) are actually inseparable.
How you play is influenced by 3 components. The expertise that one has, this consists of genetics,
practice and training. The opportunity to perform is also important, this is determined by social support
like parents and coaches, athlete support programs, birthdate (the relative age effect) and birthplace. The
relative age effect entails that older children in a selection year have an advantage. Lastly, the mind to
perform. Which involves personality traits, psychological skills and motivational orientations.
More successful athletes display higher levels of motivation, command a wide range of mental skills and
display higher levels of mental toughness and resilience, including higher levels of confidence and
perceived control, better abilities to cope with adversity and greater resistance to chocking. Chocking
refers to a sudden significant drop in athletes performance in a high pressure situation.
To increase performance gains, mental practice should focus on the following. Developing mental skills
and enhancing sustainable (long term) motivation. Improving one’s expertise (level and consistency). And
optimizing opportunities to develop and train.
To decrease performance losses, mental practice should focus on the following. Enhancing the ability and
motivation to effectively self-regulate during performance. Developing the competencies to utilize when
performing. And optimizing the opportunities to perform well.
Motivation is the psychological force that determines the direction of a person’s behavior, a person’s level
of intensity or effort, and a person’s self regulation and level of persistence.
The Self-Determination Theory can be used as a framework for motivation. The theory posits that the
fulfillment of three universal psychological needs is essential for optimal motivation.
These needs are the following. Autonomy: the need to feel a sense of control and choice over one’s own
actions and behaviors. Competence: the need to feel capable and effective in dealing with challenges and
achieving desired outcomes. And Relatedness: the need to feel connected to others, to care for others,
and to feel a sense of belonging.
The Self-Determination Theory says that there are 3 processes that move an athlete to act, think and
develop. Firstly, intrinsic motivation (or enjoyment). This occurs when an activity is performed for its own
sake, the behavior is experienced as inherently satisfying because it satisfies the needs for autonomy,
competence and relatedness. It is the most efficient. Secondly, extrinsic motivation. Here the activity is
used as a means to a separable outcome, the behavior is driven by external rewards or pressure. Lastly,
A-motivation. This is the complete lack of intent to act.
Notes ‘25 2
, Lecture 2 - perfectionism, goals and self-efficacy
If people their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are thwarted their
intrinsic motivation decreases. So if athletes believe that their sporting behavior is controlled by external
rewards (influences the feeling of autonomy), their level of intrinsic motivation may decline. But if the
rewards are perceived as informational (feedback), intrinsic motivation may increase.
Because rewards do not necessarily undermine individuals’ autonomous motivation, since the mid-1990s,
the Self-Determination Theory has shifted its emphasis away from the old distinction between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, towards one between autonomous and controlled motivation.
Motivation is a continuüm from ‘least self-determined’ motivation (Amotivation) to ‘most self-determined’
motivation (Intrinsic motivation).
Extrinsic motivation can be controlled. Then there are two types of motivation: external regulation (people
around me reward me), and introjected regulation (I feel better about myself when I do my sport).
Extrinsic motivation can also be autonomous. Here there are also two types of motivation possible:
identified regulation (my sport is a way to develop myself), and integrated regulation (my sport reflects the
essence of whom I am).
Waarom is introjected regulation niet autonoom/intrinsiek? → internal pressure
Als de extrinsieke motivatie autonoom is, waarom is het niet intrinsiek? → activity is still instrumental,
done for a separable outcome.
Perfectionism is the striving for flawlessness and setting of excessively high standards for one’s
performance. It is typically perceived as an individual difference variable, this is a characteristic that is
specific to an individual and that can be studied to see if it affects performance or behavior. Perfectionism
can also be a paradoxical: perfectionists may be vulnerable to motivation, well-being and performance
difficulties.
The 2x2 model of perfectionism categorizes perfectionism into four distinct subtypes based on the
interactions of two core dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Perfectionistic
strivings captures those aspects of perfectionism associated with self-oriented striving for perfection and
the setting of very high personal performance standards. Perfectionistic concerns captures those
aspects associated with concerns over making mistakes and fear of negative social evaluation.
Notes ‘25 3
Notes ‘25
Lecture 1 - General introduction and motivation
Performance is potential performance minus the performance losses. You can avoid performance losses
by making use of mental training. Mental training entails focussing on “how you play” while ignoring
internal and external distractions, this helps the athlete to remain composed. Over time mental training can
cause performance to increase. As a result of mental training mental toughness develops, this is the
psychological quality that enables a person to deal more effectively with pressure, setbacks and
challenges, and to persevere despite obstacles.
Applied sport psychology (a sub-field of performance psychology) is about enhancing athletes’
performance and helping them reach their potential, rather than addressing mental health issues.
Psychologists are able to help sport competitors enhance their athletic performance by increasing their
performance gains and preventing their performance losses.
There are 4 aspects of athletic performance: the physical aspect which entails the bodily condition. The
technical aspect, which encompasses the specific skills and movements required for the respective
sport. The tactical aspect, which deals with strategy and ability to make the right choices. And most
importantly in this course: the psychological aspect. This concerns the mental state such as focus, self-
confidence, motivation, emotion regulation and mental toughness.
The mental toughness model consists of 4C’s. First, Control: the capacity to feel and act as if one could
exert an influence in the situation in question. Second, Challenge: the habit of perceiving potentially
stressful situations as positive opportunities rather than as threats. Third, Commitment: the stickability or
the extent to which an individual is likely to persist with a goal or work task. These three personality
characteristics together make another personality trait called ‘hardiness’ and enable people to migitate
Notes ‘25 1
, the adverse effects of stressful situations. The fourth C that the mental toughness model adds is
Confidence: a strong belief in one’s ability to complete a task succesfully.
Sports are not just mental, if people lack the competence (fitness, strength, technical and tactical skills),
the mental piece is completely irrelevant. That’s because the competence determines fluctuations in
performance. But when competing against an opponent of similar ability, mental factors make the
difference. That is because mental factors are more sensitive to pressure situations than physical,
technical and tactical factors.
You cannot determine the weight of each separate component of the four aspects of athletic
performance, because the weight is a function of person, time, context and moment. Besides, the
different components (body and mind) are actually inseparable.
How you play is influenced by 3 components. The expertise that one has, this consists of genetics,
practice and training. The opportunity to perform is also important, this is determined by social support
like parents and coaches, athlete support programs, birthdate (the relative age effect) and birthplace. The
relative age effect entails that older children in a selection year have an advantage. Lastly, the mind to
perform. Which involves personality traits, psychological skills and motivational orientations.
More successful athletes display higher levels of motivation, command a wide range of mental skills and
display higher levels of mental toughness and resilience, including higher levels of confidence and
perceived control, better abilities to cope with adversity and greater resistance to chocking. Chocking
refers to a sudden significant drop in athletes performance in a high pressure situation.
To increase performance gains, mental practice should focus on the following. Developing mental skills
and enhancing sustainable (long term) motivation. Improving one’s expertise (level and consistency). And
optimizing opportunities to develop and train.
To decrease performance losses, mental practice should focus on the following. Enhancing the ability and
motivation to effectively self-regulate during performance. Developing the competencies to utilize when
performing. And optimizing the opportunities to perform well.
Motivation is the psychological force that determines the direction of a person’s behavior, a person’s level
of intensity or effort, and a person’s self regulation and level of persistence.
The Self-Determination Theory can be used as a framework for motivation. The theory posits that the
fulfillment of three universal psychological needs is essential for optimal motivation.
These needs are the following. Autonomy: the need to feel a sense of control and choice over one’s own
actions and behaviors. Competence: the need to feel capable and effective in dealing with challenges and
achieving desired outcomes. And Relatedness: the need to feel connected to others, to care for others,
and to feel a sense of belonging.
The Self-Determination Theory says that there are 3 processes that move an athlete to act, think and
develop. Firstly, intrinsic motivation (or enjoyment). This occurs when an activity is performed for its own
sake, the behavior is experienced as inherently satisfying because it satisfies the needs for autonomy,
competence and relatedness. It is the most efficient. Secondly, extrinsic motivation. Here the activity is
used as a means to a separable outcome, the behavior is driven by external rewards or pressure. Lastly,
A-motivation. This is the complete lack of intent to act.
Notes ‘25 2
, Lecture 2 - perfectionism, goals and self-efficacy
If people their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are thwarted their
intrinsic motivation decreases. So if athletes believe that their sporting behavior is controlled by external
rewards (influences the feeling of autonomy), their level of intrinsic motivation may decline. But if the
rewards are perceived as informational (feedback), intrinsic motivation may increase.
Because rewards do not necessarily undermine individuals’ autonomous motivation, since the mid-1990s,
the Self-Determination Theory has shifted its emphasis away from the old distinction between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, towards one between autonomous and controlled motivation.
Motivation is a continuüm from ‘least self-determined’ motivation (Amotivation) to ‘most self-determined’
motivation (Intrinsic motivation).
Extrinsic motivation can be controlled. Then there are two types of motivation: external regulation (people
around me reward me), and introjected regulation (I feel better about myself when I do my sport).
Extrinsic motivation can also be autonomous. Here there are also two types of motivation possible:
identified regulation (my sport is a way to develop myself), and integrated regulation (my sport reflects the
essence of whom I am).
Waarom is introjected regulation niet autonoom/intrinsiek? → internal pressure
Als de extrinsieke motivatie autonoom is, waarom is het niet intrinsiek? → activity is still instrumental,
done for a separable outcome.
Perfectionism is the striving for flawlessness and setting of excessively high standards for one’s
performance. It is typically perceived as an individual difference variable, this is a characteristic that is
specific to an individual and that can be studied to see if it affects performance or behavior. Perfectionism
can also be a paradoxical: perfectionists may be vulnerable to motivation, well-being and performance
difficulties.
The 2x2 model of perfectionism categorizes perfectionism into four distinct subtypes based on the
interactions of two core dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Perfectionistic
strivings captures those aspects of perfectionism associated with self-oriented striving for perfection and
the setting of very high personal performance standards. Perfectionistic concerns captures those
aspects associated with concerns over making mistakes and fear of negative social evaluation.
Notes ‘25 3
