Public Policy (2025-2026) This is the def they like most, and also often an exam
question: Who makes public policy?
—> only the government is allowed to (however they
Session 1. Public policy - Introduction consult with stakeholders, experts, … to get
advice)
1. Why are we here? 2. What is public policy
Main objectives in public administration research are to… Many tried to define it;
1) Understand puzzles like the realities of government,
policy, strategy and governance.
(Why were bars closed during covid, why are trains
never on time, why does Ghent have a LEZ-zone,…)
2) Improve parts of those puzzles and making things better
by making recommendations, sharing better understandings, …
Policy is everywhere in our daily lives:
- Mobility & transport: how many trains to Brussels?
- Education: what are the learning outcomes/ standards? But why do governments pursue policy?
-,… = to address a problem/ concern of the population
They can be distinguished in 4 types of public policy: A problem can be defined as a gap between a desirable situation
and perceived condition.
- Problems are relative (not the same for everyone) and thus
there are always battles between problems and solutions in
our environment.
—> These are inputs for the political system to make policy.
(EX: recognize type based on example)
- Those problems can also be framed by the government to pursue
ambitions: = demands in the environment are processed by the
eg. Kennedy’s 1961 moon landing goal: he didn’t want this bc there were no political system into decisions and PP. These outputs
humans on the moon, but bc of the Cold War space race, wanting to show have an impact on the environment, which can lead to
superiority of ideology over the USSR. new demands.
3. Who is involved in this system? Those are policy actors
- The government organizations, (formally elected) politicians, private
actors and stakeholders, social groups, NGO’s, … (but remember = An actor can be an individual, group, organization, or
it was only the G that can make the decisions!). social category, but every ‘actor’ must…
- have share common values, interests, and aims.
Knoepfel et al. made a model to explain how public policy works - form a meaningful unit (“unit act”) and have agency,
through the interaction of three main types of actors. or the power to act on their values.
—> Together these form the basic triangle of policy actors. Eg. religion itself is not an actor, but a religious
(Guaranteed EX Q: being able to draw the triangle & explain with an example)
group with influence can be.
= The triangle shows how problems are defined, how policies are
supposed to influence behavior, and who benefits from them.
The 3 corners of the triangle:
1) Politico-administrative authority
= Governments that define problems and implement policies
ex. The EU that define diesel cars emissions as a public problem
(air pollution etc) can make regulations like emission limits/ taxes.
2) Target groups
= Those are linked to the cause of the problem and can solve it by The link between the 3 corners can be explained
changing behavior. with 3 hypotheses:
ex. The car industry/ manufacturers can be forced/ motivated to
stop producing diesel cars bc of these regulations. 1) Political definition hypothesis
3) End beneficiaries = Authorities define the collective problem by
= Those are suffering from the neg effects of the problem and would deciding what it is, who suffers from it, … (social,
benefit if the target groups change behavior. economic, environmental, professional, etc.).
ex. Citizens exposed to air pollution, society as a whole suffering 2) Intervention hypothesis
from climate change, … = Policies are designed to influence the behavior of
+ Next to the three main corners, there are also third parties who target groups.
are indirectly affected by policy decisions. 3) Causal hypothesis
—> They can be positively affected (gaining benefits) or = If the behavior of target groups changes, the
negatively affected (facing restrictions or costs). situation of end beneficiaries will improve.
—> Depending on their experience, they may support the
policy (together with beneficiaries) or oppose it (together
with target groups).
,4. How does government policy take shape?
The policy proces has multiple phases (this is also the structure of this course - every class will dive deeper in one of the phases):
1. Agenda setting: defining the problem
2. Policy formulation: formulation possible solutions
3. Decision making: picking a solution that could work
4. Policy implementation: implementing a solution
5. Policy evaluation: evaluating the impact of a solution
6. Policy evolution: adjustments to have more impact.
But does this work in practice? Some characteristics of wicked problems:
= No, this model can be an oversimplification - No definitive formulation: Each problem is unique;
- there is overlap between the phases there is no single, clear description.
- most policy impacts are only visible on the long term - No stopping rule: There’s no clear point at which the
- today we have multi-level governance (= there are multiple levels problem is solved; a solution can reveal another P
(local, regional, central & supraN) - Solutions are not true/false, only good/bad: Multiple
- today we have a lot of wicked problems (= ill defined problems). explanations and approaches exist.
Session 2. Policy sciences 2. Policy Sciences: An Introduction
Definition
1. Session Overview
- Policy sciences study how governments make decisions about
This session introduces the field of Policy Sciences — explaining
public issues and how these decisions affect society.
why it exists, how it studies public problems, what it has delivered
—> It is an applied, multidisciplinary, and problem-oriented
so far, and where it stands today.
field that aims to both understand and improve
policymaking.
Main topics:
Purpose
• Why and what are policy sciences?
Traditional disciplines (political science, economics, sociology)
• How is policy scientifically studied?
cannot fully capture the complexity of modern policy problems
• What has policy science contributed?
—> Policy sciences integrate insights from all these fields to:
• Overview of policy models and frameworks.
• Understand how decisions are made.
• Contemporary developments and research methods.
• Develop practical solutions to real-world gov challenges.
Why Policy Science?
Policy sciences help: Understanding how scientific reasoning works in
• Make goals and values explicit → clarify what a policy aims to achieve. policymaking helps us:
• Identify and describe trends → detect how and why policy directions evolve. • Distinguish fact from fiction.
• Define the conditions of policymaking → understand institutional, political, • Avoid logical fallacies such as:
and social factors. - Post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause) →
• Project future scenarios → anticipate the effects of current decisions. assuming A caused B just because A
• Compare and evaluate alternatives → choose the most effective policies. happened before B
- Straw man → misrepresenting someone’s
The Roots of Policy Sciences Evolution in Policy’S: argument to attack it easily.
- After WW2, social scientists began - Ad hominem → attacking a person instead
focusing on real-world public of their argument.
problems rather than abstract - Other examples: slippery slope,
theory. bandwagon, false dilemma.
This multidisciplinary field ≠ interdisciplinarity!
—> This led to:
• New policy-oriented disciplines,
e.g. conservation biology
(linking science to
environmental policy).
• The idea of policy science as a
supra-discipline (= combining
multiple fields (law, eco,
sociology, administration).
• Emphasis on actionable Main topics within policy science: 3. How Is Policy Scientifically
knowledge that can directly • Policy and politics – relationship between political systems Studied?
inform decision-making. and policy decisions. From Theory to Reality
• Policy process – stages such as formulation, implem’, evaluaT. Policy research moves:
Policy Theory: Two Key • Policy analysis & evaluation – assessing design, impact, & • From ideas and
Branches effectiveness. assumptions to empirical
• Policy design – crafting instruments and strategies. observation and testing.
1) Pure social scientists • Policy implementation – translating decisions into practice.
= Focus on theory structure and • Governance & networks – multi-actor, multi-level
causal relationships between collaboration.
variables. • Street-level bureaucracy – how frontline workers apply and
—> Aim: build systematic expl interpret policy.
of how societies work.
2) Applied social scientists
= Expand existing theories and
intervene in reality.
—> Aim: apply scientific insights
to improve policymaking.
question: Who makes public policy?
—> only the government is allowed to (however they
Session 1. Public policy - Introduction consult with stakeholders, experts, … to get
advice)
1. Why are we here? 2. What is public policy
Main objectives in public administration research are to… Many tried to define it;
1) Understand puzzles like the realities of government,
policy, strategy and governance.
(Why were bars closed during covid, why are trains
never on time, why does Ghent have a LEZ-zone,…)
2) Improve parts of those puzzles and making things better
by making recommendations, sharing better understandings, …
Policy is everywhere in our daily lives:
- Mobility & transport: how many trains to Brussels?
- Education: what are the learning outcomes/ standards? But why do governments pursue policy?
-,… = to address a problem/ concern of the population
They can be distinguished in 4 types of public policy: A problem can be defined as a gap between a desirable situation
and perceived condition.
- Problems are relative (not the same for everyone) and thus
there are always battles between problems and solutions in
our environment.
—> These are inputs for the political system to make policy.
(EX: recognize type based on example)
- Those problems can also be framed by the government to pursue
ambitions: = demands in the environment are processed by the
eg. Kennedy’s 1961 moon landing goal: he didn’t want this bc there were no political system into decisions and PP. These outputs
humans on the moon, but bc of the Cold War space race, wanting to show have an impact on the environment, which can lead to
superiority of ideology over the USSR. new demands.
3. Who is involved in this system? Those are policy actors
- The government organizations, (formally elected) politicians, private
actors and stakeholders, social groups, NGO’s, … (but remember = An actor can be an individual, group, organization, or
it was only the G that can make the decisions!). social category, but every ‘actor’ must…
- have share common values, interests, and aims.
Knoepfel et al. made a model to explain how public policy works - form a meaningful unit (“unit act”) and have agency,
through the interaction of three main types of actors. or the power to act on their values.
—> Together these form the basic triangle of policy actors. Eg. religion itself is not an actor, but a religious
(Guaranteed EX Q: being able to draw the triangle & explain with an example)
group with influence can be.
= The triangle shows how problems are defined, how policies are
supposed to influence behavior, and who benefits from them.
The 3 corners of the triangle:
1) Politico-administrative authority
= Governments that define problems and implement policies
ex. The EU that define diesel cars emissions as a public problem
(air pollution etc) can make regulations like emission limits/ taxes.
2) Target groups
= Those are linked to the cause of the problem and can solve it by The link between the 3 corners can be explained
changing behavior. with 3 hypotheses:
ex. The car industry/ manufacturers can be forced/ motivated to
stop producing diesel cars bc of these regulations. 1) Political definition hypothesis
3) End beneficiaries = Authorities define the collective problem by
= Those are suffering from the neg effects of the problem and would deciding what it is, who suffers from it, … (social,
benefit if the target groups change behavior. economic, environmental, professional, etc.).
ex. Citizens exposed to air pollution, society as a whole suffering 2) Intervention hypothesis
from climate change, … = Policies are designed to influence the behavior of
+ Next to the three main corners, there are also third parties who target groups.
are indirectly affected by policy decisions. 3) Causal hypothesis
—> They can be positively affected (gaining benefits) or = If the behavior of target groups changes, the
negatively affected (facing restrictions or costs). situation of end beneficiaries will improve.
—> Depending on their experience, they may support the
policy (together with beneficiaries) or oppose it (together
with target groups).
,4. How does government policy take shape?
The policy proces has multiple phases (this is also the structure of this course - every class will dive deeper in one of the phases):
1. Agenda setting: defining the problem
2. Policy formulation: formulation possible solutions
3. Decision making: picking a solution that could work
4. Policy implementation: implementing a solution
5. Policy evaluation: evaluating the impact of a solution
6. Policy evolution: adjustments to have more impact.
But does this work in practice? Some characteristics of wicked problems:
= No, this model can be an oversimplification - No definitive formulation: Each problem is unique;
- there is overlap between the phases there is no single, clear description.
- most policy impacts are only visible on the long term - No stopping rule: There’s no clear point at which the
- today we have multi-level governance (= there are multiple levels problem is solved; a solution can reveal another P
(local, regional, central & supraN) - Solutions are not true/false, only good/bad: Multiple
- today we have a lot of wicked problems (= ill defined problems). explanations and approaches exist.
Session 2. Policy sciences 2. Policy Sciences: An Introduction
Definition
1. Session Overview
- Policy sciences study how governments make decisions about
This session introduces the field of Policy Sciences — explaining
public issues and how these decisions affect society.
why it exists, how it studies public problems, what it has delivered
—> It is an applied, multidisciplinary, and problem-oriented
so far, and where it stands today.
field that aims to both understand and improve
policymaking.
Main topics:
Purpose
• Why and what are policy sciences?
Traditional disciplines (political science, economics, sociology)
• How is policy scientifically studied?
cannot fully capture the complexity of modern policy problems
• What has policy science contributed?
—> Policy sciences integrate insights from all these fields to:
• Overview of policy models and frameworks.
• Understand how decisions are made.
• Contemporary developments and research methods.
• Develop practical solutions to real-world gov challenges.
Why Policy Science?
Policy sciences help: Understanding how scientific reasoning works in
• Make goals and values explicit → clarify what a policy aims to achieve. policymaking helps us:
• Identify and describe trends → detect how and why policy directions evolve. • Distinguish fact from fiction.
• Define the conditions of policymaking → understand institutional, political, • Avoid logical fallacies such as:
and social factors. - Post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause) →
• Project future scenarios → anticipate the effects of current decisions. assuming A caused B just because A
• Compare and evaluate alternatives → choose the most effective policies. happened before B
- Straw man → misrepresenting someone’s
The Roots of Policy Sciences Evolution in Policy’S: argument to attack it easily.
- After WW2, social scientists began - Ad hominem → attacking a person instead
focusing on real-world public of their argument.
problems rather than abstract - Other examples: slippery slope,
theory. bandwagon, false dilemma.
This multidisciplinary field ≠ interdisciplinarity!
—> This led to:
• New policy-oriented disciplines,
e.g. conservation biology
(linking science to
environmental policy).
• The idea of policy science as a
supra-discipline (= combining
multiple fields (law, eco,
sociology, administration).
• Emphasis on actionable Main topics within policy science: 3. How Is Policy Scientifically
knowledge that can directly • Policy and politics – relationship between political systems Studied?
inform decision-making. and policy decisions. From Theory to Reality
• Policy process – stages such as formulation, implem’, evaluaT. Policy research moves:
Policy Theory: Two Key • Policy analysis & evaluation – assessing design, impact, & • From ideas and
Branches effectiveness. assumptions to empirical
• Policy design – crafting instruments and strategies. observation and testing.
1) Pure social scientists • Policy implementation – translating decisions into practice.
= Focus on theory structure and • Governance & networks – multi-actor, multi-level
causal relationships between collaboration.
variables. • Street-level bureaucracy – how frontline workers apply and
—> Aim: build systematic expl interpret policy.
of how societies work.
2) Applied social scientists
= Expand existing theories and
intervene in reality.
—> Aim: apply scientific insights
to improve policymaking.
