Edition by Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks – All
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c
Page | 1
c
, Chapter 01_Essay c
Answer each of the following questions with an essay. Be sure to include specific examples that support
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
your thesis and conclusions.
c c c c
1. What are some of the problems in using evidence from contemporary gatherer societies to study early
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chumans?
2. How did early Homo erectus spread out of East Africa into other parts of the world? Where did they
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgo, and how early did they reach those places?
c c c c c c c c
3. What were the key features of Paleolithic food attainment and Paleolithic diets?
c c c c c c c c c c c
4. What are some of the theories about gender relationships in Paleolithic societies? What changed in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cthose relationships in the Neolithic period? What kinds of evidence are used in supporting or
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c arguing against these theories?
c c c
5. What is the relationship between pastoralism, disease, and humans?
c c c c c c c c
6. How did material goods create, define, and perpetuate social hierarchies in Neolithic societies?
c c c c c c c c c c c c
Answer Key c
1. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Because the earliest humans did not leave behind written evidence, scientists have studied more
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
crecent societies that lived by similar gathering means. However, most evidence about recent gatherer
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
csocieties was written by external sources and thus includes their biases and expectations, such as the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cinferiority of foraging as a lifestyle. Furthermore, few modern foragers or gatherers are truly isolated
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cfrom the influence of other agricultural or industrial cultures. Also, this approach assumes that gatherer
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
Page | 2 c c
,societies are somehow static and remain unchanged over many centuries, which ignores the evidence of
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chow adaptable such societies really are.
c c c c c
2. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Homo erectus migrated out of East Africa into central Africa, and then into northern Africa. This
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cmigration took place 2 million years ago. As early as 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus had
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cspread to Asia, reaching China and Java by 1.5 million years ago. These migrations took place over
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cland, along coastline routes. Because sea levels were lower then, individuals could cross from the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cmainland of China to Java on foot. Homo erectus also moved northward from Africa, into Spain by
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c800,000 years ago and into Germany 500,000 years ago. In each of these places, they adapted hunting
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cand gathering techniques to the local environment.
c c c c c c
3. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• The Paleolithic diet consisted of a combination of plants and animal protein. Paleolithic peoples
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cforaged for their food, engaging in what we would consider a combination of hunting, scavenging, and
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgathering. Most of what they ate were plants. Animal protein often came from scavenged foods like
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cinsects and shellfish rather than being hunted directly. It is unknown as to whether labor was divided
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cbetween genders, but in today's foraging societies, there is some division, with men engaging in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c hunting large animals and women responsible for gathering plants and small animals. It took between
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cten and twenty hours per week to gather food, but this number varied depending on environmental
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cfactors and group decisions. Because Paleolithic peoples had to forage for their diet, they expended
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cenergy and, in general, avoided diseases common in sedentary societies. Life spans were kept in check
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cby accidents, injuries, and infections.
c c c c
4. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Studies of more recent foraging societies suggest that women were valued for their labor, which
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cwas recognized as equal to the work of men. Both men and women foraged for food, and both
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cparticipated in hunting. Other scholars theorize that even in Paleolithic society one person may have
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cemerged as a leader, perhaps based on personal skill, and that this person was almost always a man. It
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c is more certain that by the Neolithic period, after the invention of plow agriculture, society became
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c more hierarchical and men took on more of a public, elite status. Women were limited to the home or
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cenclosed spaces, and land inheritance favored men over women. Evidence for gender roles in the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cNeolithic period comes from later written traditions.
c c c c c c
Page | 3 c c
, 5. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Pastoralism is the herding and raising of livestock. It requires humans to live in close contact with
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ctheir herd animals, thus exposing humans to various animal-borne diseases, such as smallpox. Initially,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cexposure to diseases may have caused higher mortality rates in pastoralist societies, but over time,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chumans would have developed some resistance to them. Foragers were not exposed to these diseases
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cand thus did not develop any resistance to them. When a pastoralist society encountered a forager
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c society, this might have led the former to expose the latter to deadly pathogens.
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
6. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• The possession of material goods—such as livestock, dwelling structures, plows, carts, and
c c c c c c c c c c c
cpots—indicated that some individuals had control over more labor. Labor was used to acquire material
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgoods. The more material goods one had, the more labor one controlled. This indicated status; to
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ccontrol labor was to have a higher status than others. Having material goods gave one the ability to
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cacquire yet more material goods and to continue to acquire status. Material goods, along with land,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ccould also constitute an inheritance, and thus perpetuate status into the next generation.
c c c c c c c c c c c c
Chapter 01_Matching c
Use the following to answer questions 1-15:
c c c c c c
Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example provided in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cthe Definitions section.
c c
Terms
a. pastoralism
b. Neanderthals
c. division of labor c c
d. animism
e. social hierarchies c
f. patriarchy
g. Paleolithic era c
h. Agricultural Revolution c
g. foraging
h. shamans
Page | 4 c c
c c c c c c c
c
Page | 1
c
, Chapter 01_Essay c
Answer each of the following questions with an essay. Be sure to include specific examples that support
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
your thesis and conclusions.
c c c c
1. What are some of the problems in using evidence from contemporary gatherer societies to study early
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chumans?
2. How did early Homo erectus spread out of East Africa into other parts of the world? Where did they
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgo, and how early did they reach those places?
c c c c c c c c
3. What were the key features of Paleolithic food attainment and Paleolithic diets?
c c c c c c c c c c c
4. What are some of the theories about gender relationships in Paleolithic societies? What changed in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cthose relationships in the Neolithic period? What kinds of evidence are used in supporting or
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c arguing against these theories?
c c c
5. What is the relationship between pastoralism, disease, and humans?
c c c c c c c c
6. How did material goods create, define, and perpetuate social hierarchies in Neolithic societies?
c c c c c c c c c c c c
Answer Key c
1. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Because the earliest humans did not leave behind written evidence, scientists have studied more
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
crecent societies that lived by similar gathering means. However, most evidence about recent gatherer
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
csocieties was written by external sources and thus includes their biases and expectations, such as the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cinferiority of foraging as a lifestyle. Furthermore, few modern foragers or gatherers are truly isolated
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cfrom the influence of other agricultural or industrial cultures. Also, this approach assumes that gatherer
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
Page | 2 c c
,societies are somehow static and remain unchanged over many centuries, which ignores the evidence of
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chow adaptable such societies really are.
c c c c c
2. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Homo erectus migrated out of East Africa into central Africa, and then into northern Africa. This
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cmigration took place 2 million years ago. As early as 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus had
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cspread to Asia, reaching China and Java by 1.5 million years ago. These migrations took place over
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cland, along coastline routes. Because sea levels were lower then, individuals could cross from the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cmainland of China to Java on foot. Homo erectus also moved northward from Africa, into Spain by
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c800,000 years ago and into Germany 500,000 years ago. In each of these places, they adapted hunting
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cand gathering techniques to the local environment.
c c c c c c
3. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• The Paleolithic diet consisted of a combination of plants and animal protein. Paleolithic peoples
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cforaged for their food, engaging in what we would consider a combination of hunting, scavenging, and
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgathering. Most of what they ate were plants. Animal protein often came from scavenged foods like
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cinsects and shellfish rather than being hunted directly. It is unknown as to whether labor was divided
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cbetween genders, but in today's foraging societies, there is some division, with men engaging in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c hunting large animals and women responsible for gathering plants and small animals. It took between
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cten and twenty hours per week to gather food, but this number varied depending on environmental
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cfactors and group decisions. Because Paleolithic peoples had to forage for their diet, they expended
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cenergy and, in general, avoided diseases common in sedentary societies. Life spans were kept in check
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cby accidents, injuries, and infections.
c c c c
4. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Studies of more recent foraging societies suggest that women were valued for their labor, which
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cwas recognized as equal to the work of men. Both men and women foraged for food, and both
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cparticipated in hunting. Other scholars theorize that even in Paleolithic society one person may have
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cemerged as a leader, perhaps based on personal skill, and that this person was almost always a man. It
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c is more certain that by the Neolithic period, after the invention of plow agriculture, society became
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c more hierarchical and men took on more of a public, elite status. Women were limited to the home or
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cenclosed spaces, and land inheritance favored men over women. Evidence for gender roles in the
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cNeolithic period comes from later written traditions.
c c c c c c
Page | 3 c c
, 5. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• Pastoralism is the herding and raising of livestock. It requires humans to live in close contact with
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ctheir herd animals, thus exposing humans to various animal-borne diseases, such as smallpox. Initially,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cexposure to diseases may have caused higher mortality rates in pastoralist societies, but over time,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
chumans would have developed some resistance to them. Foragers were not exposed to these diseases
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cand thus did not develop any resistance to them. When a pastoralist society encountered a forager
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
c society, this might have led the former to expose the latter to deadly pathogens.
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
6. Answer would ideally include: c c c
• The possession of material goods—such as livestock, dwelling structures, plows, carts, and
c c c c c c c c c c c
cpots—indicated that some individuals had control over more labor. Labor was used to acquire material
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cgoods. The more material goods one had, the more labor one controlled. This indicated status; to
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ccontrol labor was to have a higher status than others. Having material goods gave one the ability to
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cacquire yet more material goods and to continue to acquire status. Material goods, along with land,
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
ccould also constitute an inheritance, and thus perpetuate status into the next generation.
c c c c c c c c c c c c
Chapter 01_Matching c
Use the following to answer questions 1-15:
c c c c c c
Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example provided in
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
cthe Definitions section.
c c
Terms
a. pastoralism
b. Neanderthals
c. division of labor c c
d. animism
e. social hierarchies c
f. patriarchy
g. Paleolithic era c
h. Agricultural Revolution c
g. foraging
h. shamans
Page | 4 c c
