1
,CHAPTER 1—PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK
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CHAPTER OUTLINE jjff
I. Why study personality? The study of human personality helps us understand
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ourselves and other people better and gives us a greater appreciation for the
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complexity of human experience.
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II. Definition of Personality: Personality is the dynamic and organized set of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences his or her
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
cognitions, motivations and behaviors in various situations.
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III. Personality and Science: Personality is a scientific enterprise concerned with the
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description, explanation, prediction, and control of events.
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A. Components of Science: Theories and Research Methods
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1. What are theories? A theory is a system of interrelated conceptual statements
jjff jjff j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
that are created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or a set of
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
phenomena.
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2. Kinds of theories jjff jjff
a. inductive-sets of general summary statements about phenomena derived from facts. jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
b. deductive-theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
propositions and then tested by the collection of data. Deductive theories
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consist of postulates, propositions, conceptual definitions, operational definitions,
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
hypotheses, and empirical observations.
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1. postulates-the fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are taken as jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
self- evidently true in order to provide a clear and focused direction for
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
theorizing and research.
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2. propositions- general relational statements that may be true or false. They are not jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3. hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are conceptually defined jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
and operationalized so they can tested and confirmed or disconfirmed through
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
empirical testing. Hypotheses are tentative theoretical statements about how events
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
are related to one another, often stated as predictions.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
a. a prior predictions-predictions made before the collection of data.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
4. conceptual definitions- concepts in the hypotheses are defined precisely so that jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
accurate measures of the concepts can be devised.
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5. operational definitions- procedures (or operations) used to define particular jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
constructs.
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6. empirical observations-observations of phenomena made by investigators. jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
2
,1V. Research Methods Used to Test Theories
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A.Experimental Method-technique for studying cause-and- effect relationships j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
between variables. It involves the manipulation of independent variables and
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
observation of the effects of the manipulation(s) on dependent variables.
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1. independent variables-the variables actively manipulated by the experimenter so jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
that their effects on individual behavior can be observed.
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2. dependent variables-changes in behavior that occur as a result of the jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
manipulation of conditions by an experimenter.
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3. control group-the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. It is
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
manipulation(s) on the dependent variable(s) can be accurately judged.
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B. Correlational Method-general procedure for establishing an association or jj f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
relationship between events.
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1. positive correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
increases in the scores on the other variable.
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2. negative correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated
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with decreases in the scores on the other.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3. no relation-the distributions of scores on the two variables are random
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
C. Case Study Method-technique involving the intensive study of a single person in
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
order to understand his or her unique personality and behavior.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
1. post-hoc explanation-explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
V. Ethics for Conducting Research
jjff jjff jjff jjff
A.informed consent-the practice of telling study participants about the nature of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
their participation in a proposed experiment and then obtaining their written
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
agreement to participate.
jjff jjff jjff
B. debriefing-informing j j f f study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
after it is completed.
jjff jjff jjff jjff
VI. Criteria for Evaluating Theories
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A.Comprehensiveness-theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
B. Precision and testability- adequate theories should contain constructs and
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
relational statements that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured. Under
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
such conditions, theories can be more accurately tested.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
C. Parsimony- adequate theories should be as economical as possible, while still j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
adequately accounting for the phenomena in their domain.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
D.Empirical validity- the hypotheses of theories are tested by the collection of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
data to determine whether or not they are accurate.
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3
, E. Heuristic value- adequate theories should be challenging; they should stimulate new
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
ideas and new research.
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F. Applied value- adequate theories are capable of providing creative solutions to
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
problems that are of interest and concern to people in society.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
4
,CHAPTER 1—PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
CHAPTER OUTLINE jjff
I. Why study personality? The study of human personality helps us understand
jjff jjff j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
ourselves and other people better and gives us a greater appreciation for the
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
complexity of human experience.
jjff jjff jjff jjff
II. Definition of Personality: Personality is the dynamic and organized set of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences his or her
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
cognitions, motivations and behaviors in various situations.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
III. Personality and Science: Personality is a scientific enterprise concerned with the
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
description, explanation, prediction, and control of events.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
A. Components of Science: Theories and Research Methods
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
1. What are theories? A theory is a system of interrelated conceptual statements
jjff jjff j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
that are created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or a set of
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
phenomena.
jjff
2. Kinds of theories jjff jjff
a. inductive-sets of general summary statements about phenomena derived from facts. jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
b. deductive-theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
propositions and then tested by the collection of data. Deductive theories
jjff jjff jjff jjff j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
consist of postulates, propositions, conceptual definitions, operational definitions,
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
hypotheses, and empirical observations.
jjff jjff jjff jjff
1. postulates-the fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are taken as jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
self- evidently true in order to provide a clear and focused direction for
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
theorizing and research.
jjff jjff jjff
2. propositions- general relational statements that may be true or false. They are not jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3. hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are conceptually defined jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
and operationalized so they can tested and confirmed or disconfirmed through
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
empirical testing. Hypotheses are tentative theoretical statements about how events
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
are related to one another, often stated as predictions.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
a. a prior predictions-predictions made before the collection of data.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
4. conceptual definitions- concepts in the hypotheses are defined precisely so that jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
accurate measures of the concepts can be devised.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
5. operational definitions- procedures (or operations) used to define particular jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
constructs.
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6. empirical observations-observations of phenomena made by investigators. jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
2
,1V. Research Methods Used to Test Theories
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
A.Experimental Method-technique for studying cause-and- effect relationships j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
between variables. It involves the manipulation of independent variables and
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
observation of the effects of the manipulation(s) on dependent variables.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
1. independent variables-the variables actively manipulated by the experimenter so jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
that their effects on individual behavior can be observed.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
2. dependent variables-changes in behavior that occur as a result of the jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
manipulation of conditions by an experimenter.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3. control group-the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. It is
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
manipulation(s) on the dependent variable(s) can be accurately judged.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
B. Correlational Method-general procedure for establishing an association or jj f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
relationship between events.
jjff jjff jjff
1. positive correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
increases in the scores on the other variable.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
2. negative correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
with decreases in the scores on the other.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3. no relation-the distributions of scores on the two variables are random
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
C. Case Study Method-technique involving the intensive study of a single person in
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
order to understand his or her unique personality and behavior.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
1. post-hoc explanation-explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
V. Ethics for Conducting Research
jjff jjff jjff jjff
A.informed consent-the practice of telling study participants about the nature of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
their participation in a proposed experiment and then obtaining their written
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
agreement to participate.
jjff jjff jjff
B. debriefing-informing j j f f study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
after it is completed.
jjff jjff jjff jjff
VI. Criteria for Evaluating Theories
jjff jjff jjff jjff
A.Comprehensiveness-theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
B. Precision and testability- adequate theories should contain constructs and
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
relational statements that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured. Under
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
such conditions, theories can be more accurately tested.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
C. Parsimony- adequate theories should be as economical as possible, while still j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
adequately accounting for the phenomena in their domain.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
D.Empirical validity- the hypotheses of theories are tested by the collection of
j j f f jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
data to determine whether or not they are accurate.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
3
, E. Heuristic value- adequate theories should be challenging; they should stimulate new
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
ideas and new research.
jjff jjff jjff jjff
F. Applied value- adequate theories are capable of providing creative solutions to
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
problems that are of interest and concern to people in society.
jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff jjff
4
