Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
Diversity & Inclusion @ Work
- mini summary-
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations --------------------------------------- 1
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference ------------------------------------ 3
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and Fairness --------------------- 4
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In- Equity----------------- 5
EU legal framework------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7
Chapter 8: Making the Most of Diversity in Teams ----------------------------------------- 7
Chapter 9: Sex, Gender, and Work ------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Chapter 10: Race, Ethnicity, and Work ------------------------------------------------------- 9
Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and Work ---------------------------------------------------11
Chapter 12: Religion, Age, Ability, Appearance, Weight, Social Class, and Work ---12
Chapter 13: Building Diversity Competence for Individuals -----------------------------13
Chapter 14: Building Organizational Diversity Competence through Organizational
Development Treating -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations
Diversity, initially referring to demographic changes in the labour force like race,
ethnicity, and sex in the 1980s, has expanded to include factors such as education, geographic
background, and values. Inclusion became essential as research showed that merely hiring
diverse individuals was insufficient; true inclusion ensures that diverse employees are
accepted, productive, and rewarded equally within an organization. Inclusion can be defined
as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he/ she is an esteemed member of the
work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies belongingness and uniqueness”.
Two definitions of diversity:
Narrow Definition: Focuses on sex, race, and disability, often protected legal categories
associated with power differences and discrimination. While ensuring legal
protection, this approach can dilute support from majority groups and be confused
with Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA). EEO is a
passive commitment to fairness, prohibiting discrimination, while AA is a proactive
effort to attract qualified applicants from underrepresented groups
Broad Definition: Includes a wider range of differences such as functional area,
organizational level, personality, and work style, which can also lead to stereotyping.
This approach helps people see D&I initiatives as beneficial for everyone and
minimizes confusion with legal concepts. A problem with this definition is that it can
dilute the focus on historical discrimination.
From a psychological perspective, diversity is defined as “differences among people
that are likely to affect their acceptance, performance, satisfaction, or progress in an
organization”. Diversity management refers to planned programs to improve interaction
1
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
among diverse people and make diversity a source of innovation, rather than conflict.
Inclusion is a result of good diversity management, ensuring acceptance, satisfaction, and
progress of different groups.
Diversity is crucial because it influences every aspect of human resource (HR)
management and overall organizational effectiveness, including:
→ job analysis and design
→ selection, ensuring fair assessment methods and broadening the applicant pool
→ training and socialization (onboarding), adapting programs for varied backgrounds and
developing interpersonal skills
→ performance appraisal/evaluation, ensuring freedom from bias and recognizing d&i
efforts
→ job evaluation and compensation, addressing occupational segregation and wage gaps
→ group processes and leadership, leveraging diverse perspectives while managing conflict
→ organizational change and development, adapting structures and policies to harness
diversity
Van Maanen & Schein's (1979) onboarding/socialization tactics: they are
categorizing them by:
content- onboarding as group and/or away from current staff
(collective vs. individual, formal vs. informal)
context- onboarding according to fixed procedure and/or timeline
(sequential vs. random, fixed vs. variable)
social dimension- onboarding with role-models and/or newcomers can retain own identity
(serial vs. disjunctive, investiture vs. divestiture)
The importance of diversity in the current era is underscored by demographic shifts,
greater reliance on diverse teams, and increased job instability.
The "business case" for diversity argues that effective diversity management can
boost organizational profitability through improved marketing, enhanced talent attraction,
increased creativity, better problem-solving, and greater organizational flexibility. It can also
reduce costs associated with absenteeism, turnover, and discrimination lawsuits. While
studies show mixed results, companies that strategically embrace diversity often see better
outcomes, such as higher financial performance with more women in leadership. However,
some scholars argue that diversity should not be justified solely by financial metrics,
2
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
emphasizing its moral, developmental, and human benefits, and advocating for a long-term,
systemic commitment. Belgian researcher Frederik Anseel critiques the business case,
suggesting it can do more harm than good and implying that diversity is simply "the right
thing to do" without needing a financial justification.
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference
Models are crucial tools in organizational psychology for understanding complex
interactions, identifying important factors, predicting outcomes, and guiding actions in
diversity and inclusion. The "Culinary Model" of Organizational Diversity uses food
metaphors like jellybeans, salad bowl, stew, and tomato sauce to illustrate different
approaches to integrating diverse people into an organization, emphasizing variations in
adaptation and assimilation expectations.
Scholarly models provide frameworks for understanding diversity:
R. Roosevelt Thomas, Jr. outlined three organizational conditions:
o Affirmative Action (AA) focuses on legal compliance and addressing past exclusion
o Valuing Differences (VD) promotes awareness without structural change
o Managing Diversity (MD) goes further by identifying and changing organizational
systems for full inclusion
Thomas and Ely's (1996) Three Organizational Paradigms describe how diversity
is managed based on leaders' perspectives:
o Discrimination-and-Fairness (fairness, legal compliance, equal treatment)
o Access-and-Legitimacy (improving service to diverse customers, business success)
o Learning-and-Effectiveness (leveraging differences for organizational learning and
growth, leading to a truly multicultural environment)
Taylor Cox's Three Organization Types—monolithic, plural, and multicultural—
are based on acculturation patterns. A monolithic organization is homogeneous, expecting
assimilation; a plural organization has surface-level diversity but maintains biased systems
and cultural separation; and a multicultural organization values diversity, promotes mutual
adaptation, and minimizes conflict through inclusive systems and integration
Cox's Interactional Model explains how diversity climate (individual, intergroup,
organizational factors) impacts individual career outcomes and thus, organizational
effectiveness. It highlights that cultural differences and integration directly affect creativity,
problem-solving, and group communication
We have to distinguish between surface-level diversity (visible attributes like age,
sex, race) and deep-level diversity (underlying attributes like personality, values, functional
background). While surface diversity may reduce short-term group cohesion, deep-level
diversity becomes more influential over time. Harrison and Klein (2007) further clarified
three types of diversity at the group level:
separation (quantitative differences in attitudes/opinions)
variety (qualitative differences in knowledge/skills, leading to creativity)
disparity (unequal access to valued resources, leading to competition/resentment)
Key terms in social science research: empirical research, experiments, correlational
research, internal and external validity, lab vs. field settings, narrative reviews, meta-analytic
reviews, and surveys.
Historical and cultural contexts of different racial-ethnic groups: macro-legacy issues
(e.g., slavery for Black Americans) and micro-legacy issues (personal experiences with
intergroup relations). The concept of Whiteness emerged historically to justify social
3
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
hierarchies, and racial categories are socially constructed, not biological. Diversity policies
focused only on representation yield no benefits without inclusion.
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and
Fairness
Privilege is defined as unearned resources or assets that accrue to a person based on
their birth into a particular gender, ethnic, class, or other grouping. White privilege,
described as an “invisible knapsack,” highlights advantages that seem normal to those who
benefit from them, reinforcing the belief in meritocracy. Dominant groups hold the most
societal power, while oppressed groups face reduced opportunities due to institutional
structures. Privileged individuals may not notice inequality or justify it by blaming
disadvantaged groups
Entitlement can arise when privileged individuals believe their success is solely due
to merit, leading to feelings of unfairness when expectations are not met. Meritocracy, the
belief that success comes from ability and hard work, is widely accepted but can obscure the
effects of privilege and structural barriers, as evaluative criteria often reflect a biased
perspective. Institutional “isms” (like racism and sexism) refer to systemic disadvantages
faced by non-dominant groups due to institutional structures and practices, regardless of
individual intentions.
The social construction of difference posits that our understanding of reality,
including group differences, is actively created through social interactions, language, and
cultural narratives, rather than being objective. Dominant interpretations prevail because they
are better communicated and reinforced by those in power. This applies specifically to
gender, which refers to the societal meanings and expectations associated with being male or
female, distinct from biological sex, and to race, understood as a social category based on
perceptions that affect identity and life opportunities, rather than biological distinctions.
Ethnicity is also socially constructed, encompassing cultural origin alongside physical traits.
Attribution theory explains how people explain the causes of behavior, influencing
their responses in D&I contexts. Biases like the fundamental attribution error (overestimating
internal causes for others’ behavior) and the actor-observer effect (attributing one's own
actions to external factors, others' to internal traits) can lead to overlooking external
challenges faced by underrepresented groups. To avoid perceptions of unfairness,
transparency in hiring and promotion decisions is crucial, especially for underrepresented
groups, to counter assumptions of affirmative action bias.
Perceptions of fairness are critical in workplace relationships and D&I. Equity
Theory (Adams, 1965) states that fairness is judged by comparing input/output ratios with
others, creating inequity when ratios are unfavorable. This theory focuses on distributive
justice (fairness of reward allocation). Procedural justice (PJ) refers to the fairness of
decision-making processes, identified by six rules: consistency, bias suppression, accuracy,
correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. Interactional justice encompasses the
fairness of communication (informational justice) and respectful treatment (interpersonal
justice) during interactions. Fair procedures can soften negative reactions to unfavorable
outcomes, making both distributive and procedural justice essential for effective D&I.
Managers should seek employee input, use flexible systems, and ensure transparent, bias-
reducing procedures.
Robert Livingston's PRESS framework provides a five-step approach for promoting
racial equity: Problem Awareness, Root-Cause Analysis, Empathy, Strategies, and Sacrifice.
4
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
The Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) study demonstrates a self-fulfilling prophecy in
interracial interactions, where White interviewers' nonverbal "nonimmediate" behaviors (e.g.,
physical distance, speech errors) towards Black applicants led to poorer performance and
reciprocated nonimmediacy, confirming initial negative expectations. This highlights how
interviewer behavior can contribute to unequal job interview outcomes.
Creating inclusive diversity involves four interconnected elements:
equity: fair treatment, access, and opportunities, addressing systemic inequalitie
psychological safety: an environment where individuals feel safe to express themselves
without fear
inclusive leadership: leaders modeling inclusive behavior, listening, and valuing diverse
perspectives
authentic connection: genuine relationships built on trust, empathy, and respect
Key areas for promoting D&I throughout the employee lifecycle:
o addressing biases in job analysis
o using structured selection methods
o fostering cultural integration in onboarding
o assessing unconscious bias training
o ensuring fairness in performance appraisal and compensation
o nurturing psychological safety in group processes
o managing organizational change with authentic actions.
The Johari Window is introduced as a tool to enhance self-awareness,
communication, and interpersonal relationships through its four quadrants: Open, Blind,
Hidden, and Unknown areas.
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In-
Equity
Organizational structure, including formal and informal boundaries, plays a critical
role in D&I dynamics by influencing access to benefits, information, power, and promotion
opportunities. Faultlines are divisions within organizations along characteristics like race,
gender, or age, which can cause organizational fractures, especially when multiple
differences align.
Formal vertical structure illustrates hierarchies where White men are often
concentrated in upper levels, while women and people of color are at the bottom. This is
described by metaphors like the glass ceiling (invisible barrier preventing women from
reaching top leadership) and the sticky floor (obstacles keeping women in low-level
positions). The labyrinth is seen as a more accurate metaphor than the glass ceiling,
reflecting the complex, multifaceted challenges women face in advancing. The Glass Ceiling
Commission highlighted societal, government, and organizational barriers, recommending
CEO commitment, diversity goals, and affirmative action. Solutions to the glass ceiling can
be framed by four models: individual deficit (lack of training), structural (revising systems),
sex role (redefining qualifications), and intergroup (addressing prejudice/exclusion).
Related terms include the glass escalator, where men in female-dominated
occupations experience faster upward mobility, and the glass cliff, where women are more
likely to be appointed to leadership roles during crises with high risk of failure.
Formal horizontal structure involves glass walls, which limit lateral movement
across departments. These often align with gender divisions (e.g., women in HR, men in
5
Diversity & Inclusion @ Work
- mini summary-
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations --------------------------------------- 1
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference ------------------------------------ 3
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and Fairness --------------------- 4
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In- Equity----------------- 5
EU legal framework------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7
Chapter 8: Making the Most of Diversity in Teams ----------------------------------------- 7
Chapter 9: Sex, Gender, and Work ------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Chapter 10: Race, Ethnicity, and Work ------------------------------------------------------- 9
Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and Work ---------------------------------------------------11
Chapter 12: Religion, Age, Ability, Appearance, Weight, Social Class, and Work ---12
Chapter 13: Building Diversity Competence for Individuals -----------------------------13
Chapter 14: Building Organizational Diversity Competence through Organizational
Development Treating -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations
Diversity, initially referring to demographic changes in the labour force like race,
ethnicity, and sex in the 1980s, has expanded to include factors such as education, geographic
background, and values. Inclusion became essential as research showed that merely hiring
diverse individuals was insufficient; true inclusion ensures that diverse employees are
accepted, productive, and rewarded equally within an organization. Inclusion can be defined
as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he/ she is an esteemed member of the
work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies belongingness and uniqueness”.
Two definitions of diversity:
Narrow Definition: Focuses on sex, race, and disability, often protected legal categories
associated with power differences and discrimination. While ensuring legal
protection, this approach can dilute support from majority groups and be confused
with Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA). EEO is a
passive commitment to fairness, prohibiting discrimination, while AA is a proactive
effort to attract qualified applicants from underrepresented groups
Broad Definition: Includes a wider range of differences such as functional area,
organizational level, personality, and work style, which can also lead to stereotyping.
This approach helps people see D&I initiatives as beneficial for everyone and
minimizes confusion with legal concepts. A problem with this definition is that it can
dilute the focus on historical discrimination.
From a psychological perspective, diversity is defined as “differences among people
that are likely to affect their acceptance, performance, satisfaction, or progress in an
organization”. Diversity management refers to planned programs to improve interaction
1
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
among diverse people and make diversity a source of innovation, rather than conflict.
Inclusion is a result of good diversity management, ensuring acceptance, satisfaction, and
progress of different groups.
Diversity is crucial because it influences every aspect of human resource (HR)
management and overall organizational effectiveness, including:
→ job analysis and design
→ selection, ensuring fair assessment methods and broadening the applicant pool
→ training and socialization (onboarding), adapting programs for varied backgrounds and
developing interpersonal skills
→ performance appraisal/evaluation, ensuring freedom from bias and recognizing d&i
efforts
→ job evaluation and compensation, addressing occupational segregation and wage gaps
→ group processes and leadership, leveraging diverse perspectives while managing conflict
→ organizational change and development, adapting structures and policies to harness
diversity
Van Maanen & Schein's (1979) onboarding/socialization tactics: they are
categorizing them by:
content- onboarding as group and/or away from current staff
(collective vs. individual, formal vs. informal)
context- onboarding according to fixed procedure and/or timeline
(sequential vs. random, fixed vs. variable)
social dimension- onboarding with role-models and/or newcomers can retain own identity
(serial vs. disjunctive, investiture vs. divestiture)
The importance of diversity in the current era is underscored by demographic shifts,
greater reliance on diverse teams, and increased job instability.
The "business case" for diversity argues that effective diversity management can
boost organizational profitability through improved marketing, enhanced talent attraction,
increased creativity, better problem-solving, and greater organizational flexibility. It can also
reduce costs associated with absenteeism, turnover, and discrimination lawsuits. While
studies show mixed results, companies that strategically embrace diversity often see better
outcomes, such as higher financial performance with more women in leadership. However,
some scholars argue that diversity should not be justified solely by financial metrics,
2
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
emphasizing its moral, developmental, and human benefits, and advocating for a long-term,
systemic commitment. Belgian researcher Frederik Anseel critiques the business case,
suggesting it can do more harm than good and implying that diversity is simply "the right
thing to do" without needing a financial justification.
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference
Models are crucial tools in organizational psychology for understanding complex
interactions, identifying important factors, predicting outcomes, and guiding actions in
diversity and inclusion. The "Culinary Model" of Organizational Diversity uses food
metaphors like jellybeans, salad bowl, stew, and tomato sauce to illustrate different
approaches to integrating diverse people into an organization, emphasizing variations in
adaptation and assimilation expectations.
Scholarly models provide frameworks for understanding diversity:
R. Roosevelt Thomas, Jr. outlined three organizational conditions:
o Affirmative Action (AA) focuses on legal compliance and addressing past exclusion
o Valuing Differences (VD) promotes awareness without structural change
o Managing Diversity (MD) goes further by identifying and changing organizational
systems for full inclusion
Thomas and Ely's (1996) Three Organizational Paradigms describe how diversity
is managed based on leaders' perspectives:
o Discrimination-and-Fairness (fairness, legal compliance, equal treatment)
o Access-and-Legitimacy (improving service to diverse customers, business success)
o Learning-and-Effectiveness (leveraging differences for organizational learning and
growth, leading to a truly multicultural environment)
Taylor Cox's Three Organization Types—monolithic, plural, and multicultural—
are based on acculturation patterns. A monolithic organization is homogeneous, expecting
assimilation; a plural organization has surface-level diversity but maintains biased systems
and cultural separation; and a multicultural organization values diversity, promotes mutual
adaptation, and minimizes conflict through inclusive systems and integration
Cox's Interactional Model explains how diversity climate (individual, intergroup,
organizational factors) impacts individual career outcomes and thus, organizational
effectiveness. It highlights that cultural differences and integration directly affect creativity,
problem-solving, and group communication
We have to distinguish between surface-level diversity (visible attributes like age,
sex, race) and deep-level diversity (underlying attributes like personality, values, functional
background). While surface diversity may reduce short-term group cohesion, deep-level
diversity becomes more influential over time. Harrison and Klein (2007) further clarified
three types of diversity at the group level:
separation (quantitative differences in attitudes/opinions)
variety (qualitative differences in knowledge/skills, leading to creativity)
disparity (unequal access to valued resources, leading to competition/resentment)
Key terms in social science research: empirical research, experiments, correlational
research, internal and external validity, lab vs. field settings, narrative reviews, meta-analytic
reviews, and surveys.
Historical and cultural contexts of different racial-ethnic groups: macro-legacy issues
(e.g., slavery for Black Americans) and micro-legacy issues (personal experiences with
intergroup relations). The concept of Whiteness emerged historically to justify social
3
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
hierarchies, and racial categories are socially constructed, not biological. Diversity policies
focused only on representation yield no benefits without inclusion.
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and
Fairness
Privilege is defined as unearned resources or assets that accrue to a person based on
their birth into a particular gender, ethnic, class, or other grouping. White privilege,
described as an “invisible knapsack,” highlights advantages that seem normal to those who
benefit from them, reinforcing the belief in meritocracy. Dominant groups hold the most
societal power, while oppressed groups face reduced opportunities due to institutional
structures. Privileged individuals may not notice inequality or justify it by blaming
disadvantaged groups
Entitlement can arise when privileged individuals believe their success is solely due
to merit, leading to feelings of unfairness when expectations are not met. Meritocracy, the
belief that success comes from ability and hard work, is widely accepted but can obscure the
effects of privilege and structural barriers, as evaluative criteria often reflect a biased
perspective. Institutional “isms” (like racism and sexism) refer to systemic disadvantages
faced by non-dominant groups due to institutional structures and practices, regardless of
individual intentions.
The social construction of difference posits that our understanding of reality,
including group differences, is actively created through social interactions, language, and
cultural narratives, rather than being objective. Dominant interpretations prevail because they
are better communicated and reinforced by those in power. This applies specifically to
gender, which refers to the societal meanings and expectations associated with being male or
female, distinct from biological sex, and to race, understood as a social category based on
perceptions that affect identity and life opportunities, rather than biological distinctions.
Ethnicity is also socially constructed, encompassing cultural origin alongside physical traits.
Attribution theory explains how people explain the causes of behavior, influencing
their responses in D&I contexts. Biases like the fundamental attribution error (overestimating
internal causes for others’ behavior) and the actor-observer effect (attributing one's own
actions to external factors, others' to internal traits) can lead to overlooking external
challenges faced by underrepresented groups. To avoid perceptions of unfairness,
transparency in hiring and promotion decisions is crucial, especially for underrepresented
groups, to counter assumptions of affirmative action bias.
Perceptions of fairness are critical in workplace relationships and D&I. Equity
Theory (Adams, 1965) states that fairness is judged by comparing input/output ratios with
others, creating inequity when ratios are unfavorable. This theory focuses on distributive
justice (fairness of reward allocation). Procedural justice (PJ) refers to the fairness of
decision-making processes, identified by six rules: consistency, bias suppression, accuracy,
correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. Interactional justice encompasses the
fairness of communication (informational justice) and respectful treatment (interpersonal
justice) during interactions. Fair procedures can soften negative reactions to unfavorable
outcomes, making both distributive and procedural justice essential for effective D&I.
Managers should seek employee input, use flexible systems, and ensure transparent, bias-
reducing procedures.
Robert Livingston's PRESS framework provides a five-step approach for promoting
racial equity: Problem Awareness, Root-Cause Analysis, Empathy, Strategies, and Sacrifice.
4
, Laura C. | Tilburg University | 2024-2025
The Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) study demonstrates a self-fulfilling prophecy in
interracial interactions, where White interviewers' nonverbal "nonimmediate" behaviors (e.g.,
physical distance, speech errors) towards Black applicants led to poorer performance and
reciprocated nonimmediacy, confirming initial negative expectations. This highlights how
interviewer behavior can contribute to unequal job interview outcomes.
Creating inclusive diversity involves four interconnected elements:
equity: fair treatment, access, and opportunities, addressing systemic inequalitie
psychological safety: an environment where individuals feel safe to express themselves
without fear
inclusive leadership: leaders modeling inclusive behavior, listening, and valuing diverse
perspectives
authentic connection: genuine relationships built on trust, empathy, and respect
Key areas for promoting D&I throughout the employee lifecycle:
o addressing biases in job analysis
o using structured selection methods
o fostering cultural integration in onboarding
o assessing unconscious bias training
o ensuring fairness in performance appraisal and compensation
o nurturing psychological safety in group processes
o managing organizational change with authentic actions.
The Johari Window is introduced as a tool to enhance self-awareness,
communication, and interpersonal relationships through its four quadrants: Open, Blind,
Hidden, and Unknown areas.
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In-
Equity
Organizational structure, including formal and informal boundaries, plays a critical
role in D&I dynamics by influencing access to benefits, information, power, and promotion
opportunities. Faultlines are divisions within organizations along characteristics like race,
gender, or age, which can cause organizational fractures, especially when multiple
differences align.
Formal vertical structure illustrates hierarchies where White men are often
concentrated in upper levels, while women and people of color are at the bottom. This is
described by metaphors like the glass ceiling (invisible barrier preventing women from
reaching top leadership) and the sticky floor (obstacles keeping women in low-level
positions). The labyrinth is seen as a more accurate metaphor than the glass ceiling,
reflecting the complex, multifaceted challenges women face in advancing. The Glass Ceiling
Commission highlighted societal, government, and organizational barriers, recommending
CEO commitment, diversity goals, and affirmative action. Solutions to the glass ceiling can
be framed by four models: individual deficit (lack of training), structural (revising systems),
sex role (redefining qualifications), and intergroup (addressing prejudice/exclusion).
Related terms include the glass escalator, where men in female-dominated
occupations experience faster upward mobility, and the glass cliff, where women are more
likely to be appointed to leadership roles during crises with high risk of failure.
Formal horizontal structure involves glass walls, which limit lateral movement
across departments. These often align with gender divisions (e.g., women in HR, men in
5
