Experiment
NOTES - BOOK & LECTURE
WEEK 1
Methods of knowing and acquiring knowledge
Methods of acquiring knowledge= Ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to
questions.
Summary of nonscientific methods of acquiring knowledge
Method Way of knowing or finding answer
Tenacity 韌性 From habit or superstition
Intuition 直覺 From a hunch or gut feeling
Authority 權威 From an expert
Rationalism 理性主義 From reasoning; a logical conclusion
Empiricism 經驗主義 From direct sensory observation
Non-scientific approaches:
For needing an answer quickly & No serious consequences for accepting a wrong answer
1. The method of tenacity
● Definition: Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because
superstition support it
● Holding onto ideas and beliefs
○ Based on habit or superstition
○ Belief perseverance: Habits lead us to continue believing something we have always
believed
○ Example: Advertisements repeating their slogans over and over
■ Hoping consumers will accept them as true
● Persistence of superstitions
○ Represent beliefs reacted to as fact
○ Example: Many sports figures will only play a game when wearing their lucky socks.
● Downsides
○ The information acquired might not be accurate
■ Opposite attract: People are attracted to people who are like them
○ There is no method for correcting erroneous ideas
■ A belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to change
2. The method of tuition
1
,● Definition: Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or “gut feeling”.
● When
○ No information at all
○ Cannot refer to supporting data or use rational justification
● How
○ Based on the subtle cues that we pick up from the people around us
○ The predictions and descriptions given by psychics are thought to be intuitive
● Example: Ultimate decision on questions such as “What should I have for dinner?”
● Benefits
○ Quiet way to obtain answers
● Downsides
○ It has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge
3. The method of authority
● Definition: A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area
● Experts: physicians, scientists, professors, and lawyers
● How
○ Consulting an expert directly
○ Going to a library or a website to read the works of an expert
● Benefits
○ The quickest and easiest way to obtain answers
● Downsides
○ It does not always provide accurate information
■ E.g. authorities can be biased
○ The answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather
than true expert knowledge
○ We often assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics
○ People often accept an expert’s statement without question
■ People do not check the accuracy of their sources or consider looking for a
second opinion
→ False information is sometimes taken as truth
○ *Pitfall: realize that not all “experts” are experts
The method of faith
● Definition: A variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the
authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge.
● Example: Faith exists within religion
● Involves accepting another’s view of the truth without verification.
● Problem
○ It allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information
Ways to increase confidence in the information obtained
1. Evaluate the source of information
2. Evaluate the information itself
2
, a. Does the information seem reasonable?
3. If doubting the information obtained → Get a second opinion
a. If two independent authorities provide the same answer → More confident that
the answer is correct
Designed to place more demands on the information & answers they produce
4. The rational method
● Definition: The rational method, or rationalism, seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.
● Logical reasoning
○ Premise statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.
○ An argument is a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a
conclusion
● How
1. Set of known facts or assumptions
a. The first two sentences: Premise statements
2. Use logic to reach a conclusion
a. Final sentence: Logical conclusion based on the premise
○ Does not involve running around making observations and gathering information
● Common application
○ Occurs when people try to think through a problem before they try out different solutions
● Downsides
○ The conclusion is not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true, even
in a valid logical argument
○ People are not particularly good at logical reasoning
■ Most people have difficulty judging the validity of a logical argument
● Can easily make mistakes using the rational method
5. The empirical method
● Definition: The empirical method, or empiricism, uses observation or direct sensory experience
to obtain knowledge.
● How
○ Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience
○ A product of the empirical viewpoint in philosophy
○ Holds that all knowledge is acquired through the senses
■ Seeing, hearing, tasting, and so on
● Benefits
○ Provides an easy, direct way to answer questions
○ It is tempting to place great confidence in our own observations
● Downsides
○ Perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or
beliefs
■ Two observers can witness exactly the same event and yet “see” two completely
different things
○ Make accurate observations but then misinterpret what you see
3
, ○ Time consuming and sometimes dangerous
The Scientific Method
Scientific method= An approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and
then systematically finding answers
● Combination of several different methods of acquiring knowledge
The steps of the scientific method
Step 1: Observe behavior or other phenomena
● Begins with casual or informal observations
○ Simply observed the world around you until some behavior or events catch your attention
○ Possible: attention is caught by someone else’s observations
● The process of generalization beyond the actual observations
● Induction, or inductive reasoning: Using a relatively small set of specific observations as the
basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.
Step 2: Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis)
1. Identifying other factors, or variables, that are associated with the observation
● Variables: Characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different
individuals.
2. Consider possibilities of an explanation for the relationship
3. Select one of the explanations to be evaluated in a scientific research study
● Choose the explanation that you consider to be most plausible, or simply pick the one
that you find most interesting
4. Hypothesis, or possible explanation
● Hypothesis: A statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among
variables
○ A proposal to be tested and evaluated
Step 3: Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction (the rational method)
● Applying the hypothesis → a specific, observable, real-world situation.
● A single hypothesis → Several different predictions
○ Each prediction refers to a specific situation or an event that can be observed and
measured
● How: Using logic (rational method) to make the prediction
○ Deduction or deductive reasoning: Uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a
conclusion about specific examples
4
NOTES - BOOK & LECTURE
WEEK 1
Methods of knowing and acquiring knowledge
Methods of acquiring knowledge= Ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to
questions.
Summary of nonscientific methods of acquiring knowledge
Method Way of knowing or finding answer
Tenacity 韌性 From habit or superstition
Intuition 直覺 From a hunch or gut feeling
Authority 權威 From an expert
Rationalism 理性主義 From reasoning; a logical conclusion
Empiricism 經驗主義 From direct sensory observation
Non-scientific approaches:
For needing an answer quickly & No serious consequences for accepting a wrong answer
1. The method of tenacity
● Definition: Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because
superstition support it
● Holding onto ideas and beliefs
○ Based on habit or superstition
○ Belief perseverance: Habits lead us to continue believing something we have always
believed
○ Example: Advertisements repeating their slogans over and over
■ Hoping consumers will accept them as true
● Persistence of superstitions
○ Represent beliefs reacted to as fact
○ Example: Many sports figures will only play a game when wearing their lucky socks.
● Downsides
○ The information acquired might not be accurate
■ Opposite attract: People are attracted to people who are like them
○ There is no method for correcting erroneous ideas
■ A belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to change
2. The method of tuition
1
,● Definition: Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or “gut feeling”.
● When
○ No information at all
○ Cannot refer to supporting data or use rational justification
● How
○ Based on the subtle cues that we pick up from the people around us
○ The predictions and descriptions given by psychics are thought to be intuitive
● Example: Ultimate decision on questions such as “What should I have for dinner?”
● Benefits
○ Quiet way to obtain answers
● Downsides
○ It has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge
3. The method of authority
● Definition: A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area
● Experts: physicians, scientists, professors, and lawyers
● How
○ Consulting an expert directly
○ Going to a library or a website to read the works of an expert
● Benefits
○ The quickest and easiest way to obtain answers
● Downsides
○ It does not always provide accurate information
■ E.g. authorities can be biased
○ The answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather
than true expert knowledge
○ We often assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics
○ People often accept an expert’s statement without question
■ People do not check the accuracy of their sources or consider looking for a
second opinion
→ False information is sometimes taken as truth
○ *Pitfall: realize that not all “experts” are experts
The method of faith
● Definition: A variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the
authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge.
● Example: Faith exists within religion
● Involves accepting another’s view of the truth without verification.
● Problem
○ It allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information
Ways to increase confidence in the information obtained
1. Evaluate the source of information
2. Evaluate the information itself
2
, a. Does the information seem reasonable?
3. If doubting the information obtained → Get a second opinion
a. If two independent authorities provide the same answer → More confident that
the answer is correct
Designed to place more demands on the information & answers they produce
4. The rational method
● Definition: The rational method, or rationalism, seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.
● Logical reasoning
○ Premise statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.
○ An argument is a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a
conclusion
● How
1. Set of known facts or assumptions
a. The first two sentences: Premise statements
2. Use logic to reach a conclusion
a. Final sentence: Logical conclusion based on the premise
○ Does not involve running around making observations and gathering information
● Common application
○ Occurs when people try to think through a problem before they try out different solutions
● Downsides
○ The conclusion is not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true, even
in a valid logical argument
○ People are not particularly good at logical reasoning
■ Most people have difficulty judging the validity of a logical argument
● Can easily make mistakes using the rational method
5. The empirical method
● Definition: The empirical method, or empiricism, uses observation or direct sensory experience
to obtain knowledge.
● How
○ Attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience
○ A product of the empirical viewpoint in philosophy
○ Holds that all knowledge is acquired through the senses
■ Seeing, hearing, tasting, and so on
● Benefits
○ Provides an easy, direct way to answer questions
○ It is tempting to place great confidence in our own observations
● Downsides
○ Perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or
beliefs
■ Two observers can witness exactly the same event and yet “see” two completely
different things
○ Make accurate observations but then misinterpret what you see
3
, ○ Time consuming and sometimes dangerous
The Scientific Method
Scientific method= An approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and
then systematically finding answers
● Combination of several different methods of acquiring knowledge
The steps of the scientific method
Step 1: Observe behavior or other phenomena
● Begins with casual or informal observations
○ Simply observed the world around you until some behavior or events catch your attention
○ Possible: attention is caught by someone else’s observations
● The process of generalization beyond the actual observations
● Induction, or inductive reasoning: Using a relatively small set of specific observations as the
basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.
Step 2: Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis)
1. Identifying other factors, or variables, that are associated with the observation
● Variables: Characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different
individuals.
2. Consider possibilities of an explanation for the relationship
3. Select one of the explanations to be evaluated in a scientific research study
● Choose the explanation that you consider to be most plausible, or simply pick the one
that you find most interesting
4. Hypothesis, or possible explanation
● Hypothesis: A statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among
variables
○ A proposal to be tested and evaluated
Step 3: Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction (the rational method)
● Applying the hypothesis → a specific, observable, real-world situation.
● A single hypothesis → Several different predictions
○ Each prediction refers to a specific situation or an event that can be observed and
measured
● How: Using logic (rational method) to make the prediction
○ Deduction or deductive reasoning: Uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a
conclusion about specific examples
4
