Week 1 – Readings (Chapter 1,6,9)
Chapter 1 – Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
1.1 Introduction to Research Methodology and Reasons to Use Them
Obtain the most accurate and complete answers as possible with research methods to
answer questions
If you plan to conduct a study later on in the future or plan to consult them
To have a thorough understanding of articles and be able to criticize their techniques
Even understanding brief descriptions of other studies (terminology)
To become educated consumers of information (fact checking)
1.2 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge (Ways of Knowing) that are not exactly the Scientific Method
in order to discover answers.
Five Non Scientific Methods of Knowing:
1. The Method of Tenacity – The holding and keeping of ideas, beliefs, and thoughts simply
because they have been previously accepted as facts for a long time or due to superstition.
a. Reliant on habit or belief perseverance
b. Been believed to be true
c. Repetitive effects that allow the belief or superstition to persist
d. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources
ii. No method to correct inaccurate information
2. The Method of Intuition – When information is believed and accepted due it just ‘feeling
right’
a. Hunches & Instincts
b. Advantages
i. Fastest method without any background info or rational justifications
ii. Allow ethical questions to be solved
c. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources or information
3. The Method of Authority – when information is believed to be true as it originates from
an expert or authoritative figure in the subject area.
a. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources or information
ii. Authorities can be biased, even unintentionally (ex. Expert witnesses)
iii. Subjective, personal opinions can arise
iv. Authority can mask truth
v. Method of Faith – when one accepts with faith and complete,
unquestioning belief that any information from authorities is true
vi. Experts are not always experts
b. Ways to avoid: check the source, check the information, get a second opinion or
perspective
, These methods are ideal for non-immediate and non-crucial questions
The Two Non-Scientific but More Strict Methods of Knowing
1. The Rational Method (Rationalism)– Searching for answers by logical reasoning
a. Having a set of assumptions and using them to develop a logical conclusion
i. Premise Statements, Argument
b. The rational method does not involve looking for the truthfulness, just developing
a conclusion from statements.
c. Limitations:
i. The two premises HAVE to be true in order to have a true valid logical
argument
1. If the premises are false, however, the conclusion can still be valid
logically
ii. The logical conclusion is true only if the premises are specific as possible
and contextual
iii. Some people are not good with rational and do not thoroughly think
d. Usually used when considering different options or solutions, and to analyze the
possibilities and consequences of all logical solutions
e. Logic - “the method of establishing truth without any evidence”the method of establishing truth without any evidence”
2. The Empirical Method (Empiricism) – Searching for answers by direct observations or
personal sensory experiences
a. Limitations:
i. We do not perceive everything like it is, our perceptions can be deceiving
ii. Observations can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings
and beliefs bias
iii. Time consuming + dangerous
iv. All Possible solutions cannot be analyzed
1.3 The Scientific Method
Formulating questions that aim at systematically finding answers to them.
A. Steps of the Scientific Method/Scientific Inquiry
1. Observation of: Behavior or other phenomena Induction & Inductive Reasoning
a. Behavior of everyone (even yourself)
b. Observations can come from others as well
c. A few, specific examples to develop a conclusion of larger observations
2. Hypothesis Building - Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation
a. Identify variables (characteristics that differ upon individuals)
b. Not a final answer but a tested statement that describes/explains relationships
among variables
c. Universal Statement
3. Generating a Testable Prediction
a. Predictions develop from hypotheses and are highly specific
b. Logic + Deduction
2
, c. Predictions mist be testable, or that both outcomes are possible
4. Planned
Observations – Evaluate the Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned
Observations
a. Research and Data Collection Phase
b. Fair, Unbiased observations
c. Usually using inductive analyses
5. New, Edited Hypotheses – Use the Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine the
Original Hypothesis
a. A cyclical process
B. Other Elements of the Scientific Method
a. Science is Empirical
Observations need to be systematic and not one off
o Specific set of conditions
o Structure observations to get intended answers
Observations also need to be controlled
b. Science is Public
Other scientists as well as lay people should be able to evaluate your own methods
Replication, or repeated observations, allow your findings to be verified
Intentional and unintentional fraud exists
c. Science is Objective
Methods and techniques to reduce bias from all fronts (researcher, participant, etc.)
o Ex. Not revealing purpose of study.
d. Science versus Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience – a system of ideas that lack actual key components essential to scientific
research but often presented as science
Differences between Science and Pseudoscience:
o Science contains testable and objective hypotheses
o Science evaluates all points of information and does not take up anecdotal
evidence and testimonials (induction)
o Theories are ever developing in science and being constantly changed
o Scientific theories are grounded in past science, and are not trivial
3
Chapter 1 – Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
1.1 Introduction to Research Methodology and Reasons to Use Them
Obtain the most accurate and complete answers as possible with research methods to
answer questions
If you plan to conduct a study later on in the future or plan to consult them
To have a thorough understanding of articles and be able to criticize their techniques
Even understanding brief descriptions of other studies (terminology)
To become educated consumers of information (fact checking)
1.2 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge (Ways of Knowing) that are not exactly the Scientific Method
in order to discover answers.
Five Non Scientific Methods of Knowing:
1. The Method of Tenacity – The holding and keeping of ideas, beliefs, and thoughts simply
because they have been previously accepted as facts for a long time or due to superstition.
a. Reliant on habit or belief perseverance
b. Been believed to be true
c. Repetitive effects that allow the belief or superstition to persist
d. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources
ii. No method to correct inaccurate information
2. The Method of Intuition – When information is believed and accepted due it just ‘feeling
right’
a. Hunches & Instincts
b. Advantages
i. Fastest method without any background info or rational justifications
ii. Allow ethical questions to be solved
c. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources or information
3. The Method of Authority – when information is believed to be true as it originates from
an expert or authoritative figure in the subject area.
a. Limitations:
i. No accurate sources or information
ii. Authorities can be biased, even unintentionally (ex. Expert witnesses)
iii. Subjective, personal opinions can arise
iv. Authority can mask truth
v. Method of Faith – when one accepts with faith and complete,
unquestioning belief that any information from authorities is true
vi. Experts are not always experts
b. Ways to avoid: check the source, check the information, get a second opinion or
perspective
, These methods are ideal for non-immediate and non-crucial questions
The Two Non-Scientific but More Strict Methods of Knowing
1. The Rational Method (Rationalism)– Searching for answers by logical reasoning
a. Having a set of assumptions and using them to develop a logical conclusion
i. Premise Statements, Argument
b. The rational method does not involve looking for the truthfulness, just developing
a conclusion from statements.
c. Limitations:
i. The two premises HAVE to be true in order to have a true valid logical
argument
1. If the premises are false, however, the conclusion can still be valid
logically
ii. The logical conclusion is true only if the premises are specific as possible
and contextual
iii. Some people are not good with rational and do not thoroughly think
d. Usually used when considering different options or solutions, and to analyze the
possibilities and consequences of all logical solutions
e. Logic - “the method of establishing truth without any evidence”the method of establishing truth without any evidence”
2. The Empirical Method (Empiricism) – Searching for answers by direct observations or
personal sensory experiences
a. Limitations:
i. We do not perceive everything like it is, our perceptions can be deceiving
ii. Observations can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings
and beliefs bias
iii. Time consuming + dangerous
iv. All Possible solutions cannot be analyzed
1.3 The Scientific Method
Formulating questions that aim at systematically finding answers to them.
A. Steps of the Scientific Method/Scientific Inquiry
1. Observation of: Behavior or other phenomena Induction & Inductive Reasoning
a. Behavior of everyone (even yourself)
b. Observations can come from others as well
c. A few, specific examples to develop a conclusion of larger observations
2. Hypothesis Building - Form a Tentative Answer or Explanation
a. Identify variables (characteristics that differ upon individuals)
b. Not a final answer but a tested statement that describes/explains relationships
among variables
c. Universal Statement
3. Generating a Testable Prediction
a. Predictions develop from hypotheses and are highly specific
b. Logic + Deduction
2
, c. Predictions mist be testable, or that both outcomes are possible
4. Planned
Observations – Evaluate the Prediction by Making Systematic, Planned
Observations
a. Research and Data Collection Phase
b. Fair, Unbiased observations
c. Usually using inductive analyses
5. New, Edited Hypotheses – Use the Observations to Support, Refute, or Refine the
Original Hypothesis
a. A cyclical process
B. Other Elements of the Scientific Method
a. Science is Empirical
Observations need to be systematic and not one off
o Specific set of conditions
o Structure observations to get intended answers
Observations also need to be controlled
b. Science is Public
Other scientists as well as lay people should be able to evaluate your own methods
Replication, or repeated observations, allow your findings to be verified
Intentional and unintentional fraud exists
c. Science is Objective
Methods and techniques to reduce bias from all fronts (researcher, participant, etc.)
o Ex. Not revealing purpose of study.
d. Science versus Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience – a system of ideas that lack actual key components essential to scientific
research but often presented as science
Differences between Science and Pseudoscience:
o Science contains testable and objective hypotheses
o Science evaluates all points of information and does not take up anecdotal
evidence and testimonials (induction)
o Theories are ever developing in science and being constantly changed
o Scientific theories are grounded in past science, and are not trivial
3
