Inhoudsopgave
Chapter 1: Background to the Study of Psychology + Chapter 2: Methods of Psychology.................2
Chapter 3: Genetics and Evolutionary Foundations of Behavior........................................................5
Chapter 5: Mechanisms of Motivation and Emotion..........................................................................7
Chapter 6: Smell, Taste, Pain, Hearing and Psychophysics...............................................................12
Chapter 7: The Psychology of Vision.................................................................................................19
Chapter 8: Basic Processes of Learning.............................................................................................24
Chapter 9: Memory, Attention and Consciousness...........................................................................28
Chapter 10: Solving Problems: Reasoning and Intelligence..............................................................32
Chapter 11: The Development of Body, Thought and Language......................................................37
Chapter 12: Social Development......................................................................................................43
Chapter 13: Social Psychology..........................................................................................................47
Chapter 14: Personality....................................................................................................................51
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders.................................................................................................56
Chapter 16: Treatment of Psychological Disorders...........................................................................62
1
,Chapter 1: Background to the Study of Psychology + Chapter 2:
Methods of Psychology
Belangrijke perspectieven ter verklaring van menselijk gedrag kennen en begrijpen
- Neural: brain as cause
o Behavioral neuroscience explores how the nervous system produces a particular
behavior or experience
- Physiological: internal chemical functions, such as hormones as cause
o Biopsychology is the study about how hormones and drugs act on the brain to alter
behavior and experience
- Genetic: genes as cause
o Behavioral genetics attempts to explain psychological differences among individuals
by differences in their genes
- Evolutionary: natural selection as cause
Verklaart sociaal gedrag vanuit fysieke en psychologische kenmerken die over de eeuwen zijn
aangepast om de kansen op overleven en voortplanting te vergroten > verklaart waarom
bepaalde gedragingen/gedachtes/gevoelens ingebouwd zijn in de mens (aangeboren)
o Evolutionary psychology is concerned with explaining human characteristics as a
product of evolution by natural selection
- Learning: the individual’s prior experiences with the environment as cause
o Learning (or behavioral) psychology relate learning experiences directly to
behavioral changes (less concerned with the mental processes that mediate such
relationships)
- Cognitive: the individual’s knowledge or beliefs as cause
o Cognitive psychology focusses on relating behavioral action or mental experiences to
the cognitions (items of mental information) including unconscious as well as
conscious beliefs
- Social: the influence of other people as cause
o Social psychology attempts to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and
behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of
others (in terms such as social pressure)
- Cultural: the culture in which the person develops as cause
Culture = the general customs and beliefs of a social group
o Cultural psychology explains mental experiences and behavior in terms of a person’s
cultural background
- Developmental: age-related changes as cause
o Developmental psychology documents and describes the typical age differences in
how people feel, think and act, as well as the processes that produce the age-related
changes
De verschillende methodes kennen en begrijpen om het gedrag te onderzoeken
Research designs:
- Experiments: testing a hypothesis about causation by manipulating the independent
variable(s) and looking for corresponding differences in the dependent variable(s), while
keeping all other variables constant.
2
, o Within-subject experiments: each subject is tested in each of the different
conditions of the independent variable (Clever Hans)
o Between-groups experiments: there is a separate group of subjects for each
different condition of the independent variable
- Correlational studies: a researcher does not manipulate any variable, but measures two or
more existing dependent variables to see if there are systematic relationships among them.
Such studies do not tell us about causation
- Descriptive studies: aim to characterize and record what is observed, not to test hypotheses
about relationships among variables
Research settings:
- Field: ‘real life’ settings, the researcher has no control over the subjects’ experiences
Offers less control but the likelihood of more natural behavior
- Laboratory: the subjects are brought to a specially designated area, where the researcher
has great control over variables, which may interfere with the behavior being studied
Virtue of being unfamiliar or artificial
Data-collection methods:
- Self-report: procedures in which people are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or
mental state in some way. Usually in questionnaires or interviews.
o Introspection: the personal observations of one’s thoughts, perceptions and feelings
Highly subjective, niet te controleren
- Observation: all procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of
interest rather than relying on subjects’ self-reports. Subcategories:
o Tests: in which the researcher presents problems, tasks or situations to which the
subject responds (manipulation)
o Naturalistic observation: the researcher avoids interfering with the subjects’
behavior
Hawthorne effect: changes subjects’ behavior as a result of knowing they are being watched.
This can be minimalized by habituation, where a response will decline when a stimulus is
repeatedly present
Bijbehorende begrippen kennen, o.a.: onafhankelijke en afhankelijke variabele, binnen-
proefpersonen design, tussen-proefpersonen design, correlatie
Theory: an idea or a conceptual model that is designed to explain existing observations and make
predictions about new observations that might be discovered
Hypothesis: a prediction about new observations that is made from a theory
Independent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to cause some effect on another variable
Dependent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to be affected
Verschillende vormen van data-verzameling kennen en begrijpen
Descriptive statistics: include all numerical methods for summarizing a set of data
- Describing a set of scores:
o The mean: arithmetic average (gemiddelde)
o The median: the central score when arranging the scores from the highest to lowest
3
, o Standard deviation: measures variability (the degree to which numbers in the set differ from
one another and from the mean)
- Describing a correlation:
o Correlation coefficient: measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two
variables, can be used when both variables are measured numerically, ranges from -1.00 to
+1.00 and indicates the strength of a correlation
In positive correlation, an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency for the other
variable to increase
To visualize the relationship, the researcher might produce a scatter plot
Inferential statistics: help us to assess the likelihood that relationships observed are real and
repeatable or due to merely chance.
- P value: probability value, must generally be 0.05 or lower before the results are considered
to be statistically significant
Indicating a 5% or lower probability that the results are due to chance
The calculation of a p value takes into account the size of the observed effect, the number of
subjects or observations and the variability of data within each group
Betrouwbaarheid en validiteit van meetinstrumenten begrijpen
- Reliability has to do with
measurement error. A measure is
reliable when it is leading to similar
results under a particular set of
conditions
Replicabality
- Interobserver (or interrater) reliability: the same behavior seen by one observer is also seen
by a second observer
Operational definition: specifying exactly what constitutes an example of your dependent
measure, defining something in terms of the operations by which it could be observed and
measure.
- Validity: a measurement procedure is valid if it measures or predicts what it is intended to
measure or predict. A procedure may be reliable an yet not be valid! Invalid measures are
sources of bias
Face validity: if the measurement procedure appears to assess the variable that is supposed
to measure
Criterion validity: a measure that correlates significantly with another, more direct measure
of the variable. The extent to which a measure is related to an outcome
- Unreliable measurement: produces random variability that makes it more difficult to
establish statistical significance
Observer-expectancy effects can result in biases: researchers have wishes and expectations that can
affect how they behave and that they observe when recording data.
Blinding can prevent observer-expectancy effects
Also to avoid by conducting a double-blind experiment (using a placebo)
Ethiek in wetenschap
Human subjects
4
Chapter 1: Background to the Study of Psychology + Chapter 2: Methods of Psychology.................2
Chapter 3: Genetics and Evolutionary Foundations of Behavior........................................................5
Chapter 5: Mechanisms of Motivation and Emotion..........................................................................7
Chapter 6: Smell, Taste, Pain, Hearing and Psychophysics...............................................................12
Chapter 7: The Psychology of Vision.................................................................................................19
Chapter 8: Basic Processes of Learning.............................................................................................24
Chapter 9: Memory, Attention and Consciousness...........................................................................28
Chapter 10: Solving Problems: Reasoning and Intelligence..............................................................32
Chapter 11: The Development of Body, Thought and Language......................................................37
Chapter 12: Social Development......................................................................................................43
Chapter 13: Social Psychology..........................................................................................................47
Chapter 14: Personality....................................................................................................................51
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders.................................................................................................56
Chapter 16: Treatment of Psychological Disorders...........................................................................62
1
,Chapter 1: Background to the Study of Psychology + Chapter 2:
Methods of Psychology
Belangrijke perspectieven ter verklaring van menselijk gedrag kennen en begrijpen
- Neural: brain as cause
o Behavioral neuroscience explores how the nervous system produces a particular
behavior or experience
- Physiological: internal chemical functions, such as hormones as cause
o Biopsychology is the study about how hormones and drugs act on the brain to alter
behavior and experience
- Genetic: genes as cause
o Behavioral genetics attempts to explain psychological differences among individuals
by differences in their genes
- Evolutionary: natural selection as cause
Verklaart sociaal gedrag vanuit fysieke en psychologische kenmerken die over de eeuwen zijn
aangepast om de kansen op overleven en voortplanting te vergroten > verklaart waarom
bepaalde gedragingen/gedachtes/gevoelens ingebouwd zijn in de mens (aangeboren)
o Evolutionary psychology is concerned with explaining human characteristics as a
product of evolution by natural selection
- Learning: the individual’s prior experiences with the environment as cause
o Learning (or behavioral) psychology relate learning experiences directly to
behavioral changes (less concerned with the mental processes that mediate such
relationships)
- Cognitive: the individual’s knowledge or beliefs as cause
o Cognitive psychology focusses on relating behavioral action or mental experiences to
the cognitions (items of mental information) including unconscious as well as
conscious beliefs
- Social: the influence of other people as cause
o Social psychology attempts to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and
behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of
others (in terms such as social pressure)
- Cultural: the culture in which the person develops as cause
Culture = the general customs and beliefs of a social group
o Cultural psychology explains mental experiences and behavior in terms of a person’s
cultural background
- Developmental: age-related changes as cause
o Developmental psychology documents and describes the typical age differences in
how people feel, think and act, as well as the processes that produce the age-related
changes
De verschillende methodes kennen en begrijpen om het gedrag te onderzoeken
Research designs:
- Experiments: testing a hypothesis about causation by manipulating the independent
variable(s) and looking for corresponding differences in the dependent variable(s), while
keeping all other variables constant.
2
, o Within-subject experiments: each subject is tested in each of the different
conditions of the independent variable (Clever Hans)
o Between-groups experiments: there is a separate group of subjects for each
different condition of the independent variable
- Correlational studies: a researcher does not manipulate any variable, but measures two or
more existing dependent variables to see if there are systematic relationships among them.
Such studies do not tell us about causation
- Descriptive studies: aim to characterize and record what is observed, not to test hypotheses
about relationships among variables
Research settings:
- Field: ‘real life’ settings, the researcher has no control over the subjects’ experiences
Offers less control but the likelihood of more natural behavior
- Laboratory: the subjects are brought to a specially designated area, where the researcher
has great control over variables, which may interfere with the behavior being studied
Virtue of being unfamiliar or artificial
Data-collection methods:
- Self-report: procedures in which people are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or
mental state in some way. Usually in questionnaires or interviews.
o Introspection: the personal observations of one’s thoughts, perceptions and feelings
Highly subjective, niet te controleren
- Observation: all procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of
interest rather than relying on subjects’ self-reports. Subcategories:
o Tests: in which the researcher presents problems, tasks or situations to which the
subject responds (manipulation)
o Naturalistic observation: the researcher avoids interfering with the subjects’
behavior
Hawthorne effect: changes subjects’ behavior as a result of knowing they are being watched.
This can be minimalized by habituation, where a response will decline when a stimulus is
repeatedly present
Bijbehorende begrippen kennen, o.a.: onafhankelijke en afhankelijke variabele, binnen-
proefpersonen design, tussen-proefpersonen design, correlatie
Theory: an idea or a conceptual model that is designed to explain existing observations and make
predictions about new observations that might be discovered
Hypothesis: a prediction about new observations that is made from a theory
Independent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to cause some effect on another variable
Dependent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to be affected
Verschillende vormen van data-verzameling kennen en begrijpen
Descriptive statistics: include all numerical methods for summarizing a set of data
- Describing a set of scores:
o The mean: arithmetic average (gemiddelde)
o The median: the central score when arranging the scores from the highest to lowest
3
, o Standard deviation: measures variability (the degree to which numbers in the set differ from
one another and from the mean)
- Describing a correlation:
o Correlation coefficient: measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two
variables, can be used when both variables are measured numerically, ranges from -1.00 to
+1.00 and indicates the strength of a correlation
In positive correlation, an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency for the other
variable to increase
To visualize the relationship, the researcher might produce a scatter plot
Inferential statistics: help us to assess the likelihood that relationships observed are real and
repeatable or due to merely chance.
- P value: probability value, must generally be 0.05 or lower before the results are considered
to be statistically significant
Indicating a 5% or lower probability that the results are due to chance
The calculation of a p value takes into account the size of the observed effect, the number of
subjects or observations and the variability of data within each group
Betrouwbaarheid en validiteit van meetinstrumenten begrijpen
- Reliability has to do with
measurement error. A measure is
reliable when it is leading to similar
results under a particular set of
conditions
Replicabality
- Interobserver (or interrater) reliability: the same behavior seen by one observer is also seen
by a second observer
Operational definition: specifying exactly what constitutes an example of your dependent
measure, defining something in terms of the operations by which it could be observed and
measure.
- Validity: a measurement procedure is valid if it measures or predicts what it is intended to
measure or predict. A procedure may be reliable an yet not be valid! Invalid measures are
sources of bias
Face validity: if the measurement procedure appears to assess the variable that is supposed
to measure
Criterion validity: a measure that correlates significantly with another, more direct measure
of the variable. The extent to which a measure is related to an outcome
- Unreliable measurement: produces random variability that makes it more difficult to
establish statistical significance
Observer-expectancy effects can result in biases: researchers have wishes and expectations that can
affect how they behave and that they observe when recording data.
Blinding can prevent observer-expectancy effects
Also to avoid by conducting a double-blind experiment (using a placebo)
Ethiek in wetenschap
Human subjects
4
