Black Consciousness : Context,
Origins & Aims
Context: Revival in Activism Black Consciousness Parallels
• In the 1960s, those who resisted apartheid were ruthlessly suppressed which created a climate of fear and to Other Movements
reduction in organised opposition. • Some aims and aspects of its
→ There seemed to be little hope of change as result of: philosophy are similar to
○ 1960: The Sharpeville Massacre and banning of ANC and PAC (Unlawful Organisations Act) Black Power
→ Resistance forced underground (MK and Poqo) . Movement - black people
○ 1964: The Rivonia Trial and the imprisonment of anti-apartheid leaders, like Mandela, Mbeki and in assertive roles to advance
Sisulu for example. change, black pride and
○ 1967: Terrorism Act: Detention without trial excluding whites from
• The 1970s brought a revival in the fight with renewed activism due to increasing difficulties and rising movement
consciousness. • Black Consciousness
→ This renewed activism culminated in the 1976 Soweto Uprisings (turning point in resistance Movement seen as part of
against NP government). 1960s movement of
→ The Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) emerged in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum student activism (evident
created by the jailing and banning of the ANC and PAC. in West).
• Inspiration gained from:
○ Newly independent African states and the USA's Black Power Movement All Abbreviations
○ Growing criticism of South Africa internationally. • NUSAS: The National
Union of South African
○ Developed in the context of the international youth revolt of the late 1960s.
Students
○ Influenced by new African leaders - e.g. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania) and
• SASO: South African
Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia).
• Students' Organisation
Driving forces of the BCM: SASO and Steve Biko.
• BPC: The Black Peoples'
Convention
What Black Consciousness Was • SRC: Student
• A philosophy, attitude of mind and a way of life that took direct action against apartheid
Representative Council
• Based on belief that black people could only be liberated if they worked at removing chains of inferiority
• BCP: Black Community
and fear.
Programmes
• It encouraged black people to create change and take control of their own destinies, instead of waiting
• SASM: The South African
for white people to do so.
Students' Movement
• Black people expected to help another through collectively working towards liberation and by • SSRC: Soweto Students'
developing strategies and campaigns.
Representative Council
• SASO Policy Manifesto 1971 defined it as an attitude of mind and way of life.
• BAWU: Black Allied
• "Black" was a challenge to apartheid language of "non-white". Workers' Union
• Differed from multi-racial approach of the ANC and gave youth a new approach.
Aims of Black Consciousness
• Psychological liberation of black people
• Political, social and economic liberation by raising self-respect and confidence.
• Promote pride in black identity, history & culture to reverse cycle of devaluation following legacy of
colonialism and apartheid.
• Stop working with white liberals in multi-racial organisation (e.g. NUSAS). But encourage white liberals to
educate white racists to change their attitudes.
• Increase unity among black people by calling all to fight against apartheid and its divisions (formed from
Bantustans and separate development) as black people wield power as a cohesive group.
Origins of the Black Consciousness Movement
• Emerged out of apartheid universities - ethnically divided & based in Bantustans.
○ 1959 Extension of University Education Act : Made it illegal for black students to register and
white universities.
○ New universities built for black students:
1. The University of Zululand
2. The University of the North
3. The University of Westville - for Indians
4. The University of the Western Cape - for Coloureds.
5. The University of Fort Hare - For isiXhosa-speaking students only. Not new but taken over by
government when once private.
• Students at these universities faced obstacles and restrictions like:
1. Withdrawal of scholarships following engagement in political activity.
2. Separation from cities & other students as all three African universities were rurally located.
3. Limited movement on campus & all aspects of study - like curricula, library facilities and student
organisations were strictly monitored by the government.
4. Difficulty in organising protest action due to limited facilities - lack of access to telephones and
transport.
5. Black academics punished for lecturing unauthorised topics.
• Students could engage with political concerns on elected student representative councils.
• Initially, Black students aligned themselves with NUSAS (non-racial org).
○ Black students broke away from NUSAS to form a separate student organisation after black delegates
at 1967 Grahamstown conference were given separate accommodation and meals from white
students.
→ NUSAS seen as not taking a sufficiently decisive stand against apartheid regime
→ Biko broke away from NUSAS in 1968 to form SASO.
,The Role of Steve Biko
Background
• Born into a poor family in the Eastern Cape in 1946. After his 1964 matriculation, he
studied medicine at the Non-European section of the University of Natal.
• He was influenced by Fanon, du Bois and Malcolm X.
• Active in student politics and became a NUSAS member.
• Confident speaker and displayed strong leadership qualities.
• He realised that NUSAS would not be effective in leading black liberation - he led the
breakaway from them in 1968.
• Realised black students had to assert themselves and not rely on white students
to advance black liberation.
• Majority of university students were white, giving them too much power in non-racial
organisations.
• He networked with student activists nationwide from 1967-68.
• Significant meeting at Marianhill, Natal in Dec 1968.
• Decided to launch SASO in 1969 - he was the first president.
• Biko taught that black people had lost self-confidence from living in a white dominated
society for generations. He urged them to regain lost confidence and end dependence
on whites in order to acquire freedom.
• He expressed that black consciousness "seeks to infuse the black community with a
newfound pride in themselves"
○ His words informed many of black consciousness's central ideas.
SASO: South African Students' Organisation
• Black consciousness emerged from this movement.
• They formed after the breakaway from NUSAS.
• Became a successful organisation - well-organised with strong leadership.
• Based in ethnically designated universities.
• Contribution from Student Representative Councils (SRC):
○ Received funding from SRC-controlled sporting and cultural events.
○ Had access to SRC offices with printing and telephone facilities used to extend
communication networks.
• No alignment to white students - but Indian and Coloured students included.
• Role of Black Consciousness:
○ Ideology appealed to the youth and the message was powerful and simple.
○ Taught that being black meant being proud of one's blackness and identity.
○ New solidarity between victims of apartheid was found through black
consciousness.
Steve Biko's Death
• August 1977: Steve Biko had been banned (since 1973) and was caught in a roadblock
outside Grahamstown.
• He was detained without trial under the Terrorism Act.
• He was beaten and interrogated at police headquarters in Port Elizabeth and became very ill
during this process.
○ Three doctors visited him and gave him a false diagnosis.
○ 12 September 1977: He died in police custody in Pretoria
, How Black Consciousness Challenged the
Apartheid State
The Black Consciousness
Organisational Work of Black Consciousness
Movement
• Black Community Programmes (BCP) set up where black people helped one
• Broad term for number
another without white assistance.
of different
○ Programmes included: Economic co-operatives, literacy projects, art centres,
organisations formed in
crèche, and cultural forums.
early 1970s.
○ The Zanempilo Community Health Clinic set up near King
Williamstown and was run by Dr Mamphela Ramphele & an all-black
staff. • Black Consciousness also
○ BCPs embodied Black Consciousness ideals of self-determination and self- challenged the state for
reliance. reasons already mentioned:
• 1972: The Black Peoples' Convention (BPC) was established by SASO to act as ○ It influenced anti-
an umbrella body to all Black Consciousness organisations. apartheid action
• 1973: Influence of trade unions: ○ It's political philosophy
○ The Black Allied Workers Union (BAWU) was established and formed directly challenged
part of the BCM (even though black trade unions were illegal). apartheid by reasserting
○ As an independent black trade union, it promoted Black Consciousness ideals black people after
of self-determination. decades of exploitation.
○ While not the primary instigator, BAWU had some involvement in ○ It was a shift from old
increased trade union activity. methods that were not
• SASO had some influence in high schools and organised debating forums and effectively making
service clubs that conducted political discussion in the context of rising student change - shift from
dissatisfaction in the education system. ANC, forced to change
• 1972: The South African Students' Movement (SASM) (organisation of high as new laws criminalised
students) was set up political action,
• Thrust and Biko's writing, "Frank Talk" spread the ideas of BCM widely. separation from white
• 1974: The BCM organised a Viva Frelimo rally people, new solidarity
• 1976: SASM formed an action committee - later renamed to the Soweto formed between black
Students Representative Council (SSRC) people, focused on
○ Planned a civil society protest for June 16th 1976 to carry placards calling for mental as well as
the end of implementation of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in physical liberation
schools and Bantu education.
Initial Government Response
• When the movement was set up, the government had welcomed the establishment of a perceived apartheid-
structured student movement
• Approved of distinctive black culture and concept of black separateness as aligning with policy of separate
development
• Thought that as a philosophical movement, it would have no direct political impact.
Change in Government Response over Short Time Period
• Government soon realised the movement was directly opposed to the apartheid structure- including homelands
system.
• Members of SASO were hounded by the police.
• Many students expelled from universities by authorities, then arrested and banned.
• 1973: Leaders of SASO and BPC were banned
• 1974: The BCM organised a Viva Frelimo rally - members then banned and detained.
• 1975-76; Nine SASO & BPC members charged with treason.
○ Used as an opportunity to educate the public on Black Consciousness, and to share brutal police
treatment with international community, increasing support.
Government Response to Black Consciousness in Soweto Uprising Aftermath
• 1977: 123 main members of the Black Consciousness Movement were banned and Mapetla Mohapi died in detention.
• 12 September 1977: Steve Biko died in police custody
→ 19 Oct 1977: Government then banned 17 Black Consciousness organisations - including SASO, SASM, SSRC
and BPC.
○ Became known as Black Wednesday.
w The banning of these Black Consciousness organisations indicated that the government saw Black
Consciousness as a driving force behind the Soweto Uprising. Government therefore saw Black
Consciousness as being able to challenge white supremacy.
Summary of the Impact of the Black Consciousness Movement
• Reinvigorated the struggle
• Contributed to mental liberation needed to carry on activism.
• Publications like 'Thrust', 'Black Review', community newspapers, and Biko's writing as 'Frank Talk' spread the ideas of
BCM and its influence widely
• Offered new approach to ANC - created new solidarity between black people, encouraged internal support to
challenge the government, stopped working with white people and focused on mental liberation to achieve political
liberation.
• Somewhat influential on Soweto Uprising.
• Inspired black communities by promoting black self-reliance.
• Government clampdown indicates its ability to threaten the apartheid state (the government needed to suppress its
impact).
• Although it became banned, limiting its movement, its philosophy lived on and it continued to inspire other
movements
Origins & Aims
Context: Revival in Activism Black Consciousness Parallels
• In the 1960s, those who resisted apartheid were ruthlessly suppressed which created a climate of fear and to Other Movements
reduction in organised opposition. • Some aims and aspects of its
→ There seemed to be little hope of change as result of: philosophy are similar to
○ 1960: The Sharpeville Massacre and banning of ANC and PAC (Unlawful Organisations Act) Black Power
→ Resistance forced underground (MK and Poqo) . Movement - black people
○ 1964: The Rivonia Trial and the imprisonment of anti-apartheid leaders, like Mandela, Mbeki and in assertive roles to advance
Sisulu for example. change, black pride and
○ 1967: Terrorism Act: Detention without trial excluding whites from
• The 1970s brought a revival in the fight with renewed activism due to increasing difficulties and rising movement
consciousness. • Black Consciousness
→ This renewed activism culminated in the 1976 Soweto Uprisings (turning point in resistance Movement seen as part of
against NP government). 1960s movement of
→ The Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) emerged in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum student activism (evident
created by the jailing and banning of the ANC and PAC. in West).
• Inspiration gained from:
○ Newly independent African states and the USA's Black Power Movement All Abbreviations
○ Growing criticism of South Africa internationally. • NUSAS: The National
Union of South African
○ Developed in the context of the international youth revolt of the late 1960s.
Students
○ Influenced by new African leaders - e.g. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania) and
• SASO: South African
Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia).
• Students' Organisation
Driving forces of the BCM: SASO and Steve Biko.
• BPC: The Black Peoples'
Convention
What Black Consciousness Was • SRC: Student
• A philosophy, attitude of mind and a way of life that took direct action against apartheid
Representative Council
• Based on belief that black people could only be liberated if they worked at removing chains of inferiority
• BCP: Black Community
and fear.
Programmes
• It encouraged black people to create change and take control of their own destinies, instead of waiting
• SASM: The South African
for white people to do so.
Students' Movement
• Black people expected to help another through collectively working towards liberation and by • SSRC: Soweto Students'
developing strategies and campaigns.
Representative Council
• SASO Policy Manifesto 1971 defined it as an attitude of mind and way of life.
• BAWU: Black Allied
• "Black" was a challenge to apartheid language of "non-white". Workers' Union
• Differed from multi-racial approach of the ANC and gave youth a new approach.
Aims of Black Consciousness
• Psychological liberation of black people
• Political, social and economic liberation by raising self-respect and confidence.
• Promote pride in black identity, history & culture to reverse cycle of devaluation following legacy of
colonialism and apartheid.
• Stop working with white liberals in multi-racial organisation (e.g. NUSAS). But encourage white liberals to
educate white racists to change their attitudes.
• Increase unity among black people by calling all to fight against apartheid and its divisions (formed from
Bantustans and separate development) as black people wield power as a cohesive group.
Origins of the Black Consciousness Movement
• Emerged out of apartheid universities - ethnically divided & based in Bantustans.
○ 1959 Extension of University Education Act : Made it illegal for black students to register and
white universities.
○ New universities built for black students:
1. The University of Zululand
2. The University of the North
3. The University of Westville - for Indians
4. The University of the Western Cape - for Coloureds.
5. The University of Fort Hare - For isiXhosa-speaking students only. Not new but taken over by
government when once private.
• Students at these universities faced obstacles and restrictions like:
1. Withdrawal of scholarships following engagement in political activity.
2. Separation from cities & other students as all three African universities were rurally located.
3. Limited movement on campus & all aspects of study - like curricula, library facilities and student
organisations were strictly monitored by the government.
4. Difficulty in organising protest action due to limited facilities - lack of access to telephones and
transport.
5. Black academics punished for lecturing unauthorised topics.
• Students could engage with political concerns on elected student representative councils.
• Initially, Black students aligned themselves with NUSAS (non-racial org).
○ Black students broke away from NUSAS to form a separate student organisation after black delegates
at 1967 Grahamstown conference were given separate accommodation and meals from white
students.
→ NUSAS seen as not taking a sufficiently decisive stand against apartheid regime
→ Biko broke away from NUSAS in 1968 to form SASO.
,The Role of Steve Biko
Background
• Born into a poor family in the Eastern Cape in 1946. After his 1964 matriculation, he
studied medicine at the Non-European section of the University of Natal.
• He was influenced by Fanon, du Bois and Malcolm X.
• Active in student politics and became a NUSAS member.
• Confident speaker and displayed strong leadership qualities.
• He realised that NUSAS would not be effective in leading black liberation - he led the
breakaway from them in 1968.
• Realised black students had to assert themselves and not rely on white students
to advance black liberation.
• Majority of university students were white, giving them too much power in non-racial
organisations.
• He networked with student activists nationwide from 1967-68.
• Significant meeting at Marianhill, Natal in Dec 1968.
• Decided to launch SASO in 1969 - he was the first president.
• Biko taught that black people had lost self-confidence from living in a white dominated
society for generations. He urged them to regain lost confidence and end dependence
on whites in order to acquire freedom.
• He expressed that black consciousness "seeks to infuse the black community with a
newfound pride in themselves"
○ His words informed many of black consciousness's central ideas.
SASO: South African Students' Organisation
• Black consciousness emerged from this movement.
• They formed after the breakaway from NUSAS.
• Became a successful organisation - well-organised with strong leadership.
• Based in ethnically designated universities.
• Contribution from Student Representative Councils (SRC):
○ Received funding from SRC-controlled sporting and cultural events.
○ Had access to SRC offices with printing and telephone facilities used to extend
communication networks.
• No alignment to white students - but Indian and Coloured students included.
• Role of Black Consciousness:
○ Ideology appealed to the youth and the message was powerful and simple.
○ Taught that being black meant being proud of one's blackness and identity.
○ New solidarity between victims of apartheid was found through black
consciousness.
Steve Biko's Death
• August 1977: Steve Biko had been banned (since 1973) and was caught in a roadblock
outside Grahamstown.
• He was detained without trial under the Terrorism Act.
• He was beaten and interrogated at police headquarters in Port Elizabeth and became very ill
during this process.
○ Three doctors visited him and gave him a false diagnosis.
○ 12 September 1977: He died in police custody in Pretoria
, How Black Consciousness Challenged the
Apartheid State
The Black Consciousness
Organisational Work of Black Consciousness
Movement
• Black Community Programmes (BCP) set up where black people helped one
• Broad term for number
another without white assistance.
of different
○ Programmes included: Economic co-operatives, literacy projects, art centres,
organisations formed in
crèche, and cultural forums.
early 1970s.
○ The Zanempilo Community Health Clinic set up near King
Williamstown and was run by Dr Mamphela Ramphele & an all-black
staff. • Black Consciousness also
○ BCPs embodied Black Consciousness ideals of self-determination and self- challenged the state for
reliance. reasons already mentioned:
• 1972: The Black Peoples' Convention (BPC) was established by SASO to act as ○ It influenced anti-
an umbrella body to all Black Consciousness organisations. apartheid action
• 1973: Influence of trade unions: ○ It's political philosophy
○ The Black Allied Workers Union (BAWU) was established and formed directly challenged
part of the BCM (even though black trade unions were illegal). apartheid by reasserting
○ As an independent black trade union, it promoted Black Consciousness ideals black people after
of self-determination. decades of exploitation.
○ While not the primary instigator, BAWU had some involvement in ○ It was a shift from old
increased trade union activity. methods that were not
• SASO had some influence in high schools and organised debating forums and effectively making
service clubs that conducted political discussion in the context of rising student change - shift from
dissatisfaction in the education system. ANC, forced to change
• 1972: The South African Students' Movement (SASM) (organisation of high as new laws criminalised
students) was set up political action,
• Thrust and Biko's writing, "Frank Talk" spread the ideas of BCM widely. separation from white
• 1974: The BCM organised a Viva Frelimo rally people, new solidarity
• 1976: SASM formed an action committee - later renamed to the Soweto formed between black
Students Representative Council (SSRC) people, focused on
○ Planned a civil society protest for June 16th 1976 to carry placards calling for mental as well as
the end of implementation of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in physical liberation
schools and Bantu education.
Initial Government Response
• When the movement was set up, the government had welcomed the establishment of a perceived apartheid-
structured student movement
• Approved of distinctive black culture and concept of black separateness as aligning with policy of separate
development
• Thought that as a philosophical movement, it would have no direct political impact.
Change in Government Response over Short Time Period
• Government soon realised the movement was directly opposed to the apartheid structure- including homelands
system.
• Members of SASO were hounded by the police.
• Many students expelled from universities by authorities, then arrested and banned.
• 1973: Leaders of SASO and BPC were banned
• 1974: The BCM organised a Viva Frelimo rally - members then banned and detained.
• 1975-76; Nine SASO & BPC members charged with treason.
○ Used as an opportunity to educate the public on Black Consciousness, and to share brutal police
treatment with international community, increasing support.
Government Response to Black Consciousness in Soweto Uprising Aftermath
• 1977: 123 main members of the Black Consciousness Movement were banned and Mapetla Mohapi died in detention.
• 12 September 1977: Steve Biko died in police custody
→ 19 Oct 1977: Government then banned 17 Black Consciousness organisations - including SASO, SASM, SSRC
and BPC.
○ Became known as Black Wednesday.
w The banning of these Black Consciousness organisations indicated that the government saw Black
Consciousness as a driving force behind the Soweto Uprising. Government therefore saw Black
Consciousness as being able to challenge white supremacy.
Summary of the Impact of the Black Consciousness Movement
• Reinvigorated the struggle
• Contributed to mental liberation needed to carry on activism.
• Publications like 'Thrust', 'Black Review', community newspapers, and Biko's writing as 'Frank Talk' spread the ideas of
BCM and its influence widely
• Offered new approach to ANC - created new solidarity between black people, encouraged internal support to
challenge the government, stopped working with white people and focused on mental liberation to achieve political
liberation.
• Somewhat influential on Soweto Uprising.
• Inspired black communities by promoting black self-reliance.
• Government clampdown indicates its ability to threaten the apartheid state (the government needed to suppress its
impact).
• Although it became banned, limiting its movement, its philosophy lived on and it continued to inspire other
movements
