ATTITUDES TOWARDS ETHNIC MINORITIES IN THE FRG 1945-89
Statistics Key Dates
• April 1947, there were 10 million refugees and 1973 government stopped hiring guest workers
‘expellees ‘in the FRG
1975 guest workers’ children given same benefits
• Between 1961 and 1973, about 3 million German
workers switched from blue-collar to white-collar 1977 ban removed, guest workers hired again
jobs
• 25% of workers in Germany in 1964 had been there 1978 Schmit appoints commissioner
over 3 years (frequently renewed 1-year guest
contracts)
• After 1973 ban, number of guest workers fell to under Key Figures/Terms
2 million
Guest worker: foreign worker hired on a 1-year
• 60% of foreign children in schools were Muslim
contract that could be renewed or terminated once it
ended
Summary
• Attitudes
o Trade unions feared adding more foreign workers would disadvantage Germans – led to political change
o During economic booms, guest workers benefited Germans by letting them pursue desirable, white-
collar jobs
o Guest workers were viewed as ‘less’ than German citizens and did not have the same legal rights
o Germans were usually hostile towards guest workers who did not integrate, but scorned them if they
tried to learn German, for example
o Many ended up establishing their own schools due to cultural tensions in education
§ Most pre-schools were Christian and so non-German children joining grundschule struggled
§ For example, Muslim children had little to no language help or prior education in Germany
• Policies
o Government guaranteed non-German workers the same wages and gave preference to German workers
when hiring (to appease trade unions)
o Federal Office for Labor Recruitment ran offices in countries Germany had labor agreements with
§ Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Yugoslavia
o Workers had no citizenship rights and their legal rights were unclear until 1978, when Schmidt appointed
a Federal Commissioner for Foreigners’ Affairs to promote integration and organize unrestricted
residence
o In November 1973, government stopped hiring guest workers and prevented workers in Germany from
bringing their family
o The ban was removed in 1977 and the number of guest workers increased again
o Guest workers’ employers had to house them, but they were often in cheap housing far from anyone,
contributing to exclusion/isolation
• Influence of Economic factors
o Nearly all policies and attitudes towards ethnic minorities were driven by economic factors in the FRG
o Changes in treatment were driven by economic recession – guest workers were welcomed during
economic booms but restricted during all recessions and crises
• Comparing periods
o Weimar: attitudes were driven moderately by economic factors, mixed with cultural and historical
o Nazi: attitudes were driven by racial ideology and influenced by economic and historic factors
o FRG: attitudes were driven by economic factors and moderately by political policies
, NAZI RACIAL POLICIES AND THE HOLOCAUST 1933-45
Statistics Key Dates
• 7 million non-Jewish soviet people were killed 8th Nov 1938 Kristallnacht
• 6 million Jews were killed
April 1933 Earliest bans and boycotts
• 500,000 Gypsies were killed
• 400,000 people were estimated to have been Sept 1935 Nuremburg Race laws
sterilized
• 250,000 disabled people were killed
• 15,000 homosexuals were killed Key Figures/Terms
Social Darwinism – belief that certain ethnic groups were
more or less advanced than others
Summary
• Forced emigration 1933-39
o Jewish people were encouraged to leave Germany and forced to pay a ‘tax’ of around ½ of their wealth to
do so – foreign countries began placing ‘quotas’ on the number of Jews allowed in
o From 1939 Jews were discouraged from leaving, and the ‘tax’ to emigrate was almost everything but a
suitcase per person
• Bans and Boycotts April 1933
o Enforced by SA on Jewish business, violently discouraging buying from them
o Restricted entry to university, sporting groups, prevented from sending telegrams and working for
newspapers or as financial advisors
• Concentration/Labor Camps 1933
o Oranienburg the first one, for political prisoners
o Used for any ‘lesser’ races, especially Jews, Poles, black people, and Gypsies
o Hardly any food paired with intense labor meant that most people died, even though they weren’t
technically executed
• Sterilization 1934
o Anyone deemed ‘unfit’ to reproduce could be sterilized, often with significant health risks
• Nuremburg Race Laws 1935
o The first of the Nazis’ more severe policies, restricting Jewish freedoms to own businesses, work, and take
part in society
• Kristallnacht 9th November 1938
o 1st large-scale organized attacks on Jewish people and synagogues – the Jewish were forced to pay for
repairs
• Euthanasia 1939
o Mentally ill people were killed because of Nazi theories of social Darwinism + superiority
• Einsatzgruppen 1939
o Groups technically intended to hunt down Polish resistance, but by 1942 they were killing Jews en masse
• Ghettos - 1939
o Jewish people were placed in Ghettos, places with very little food, water, electricity, and medicine
o They were often taken to camps from Ghettos, or left there to further Nazi propaganda
o Claims that they were unkempt, dirty, and ‘lesser’ were supported with pictures of them in the ghettos
• The Final Solution 1942
o At a conference in Wannsee in 1942, the ‘final solution’ (death camps) was decided, and Jews were sent to
camps to be executed. Around 5 were set up, and you only worked there if you were waiting to be gassed
o Holocaust is sometimes blamed on Hitler’s antisemitism, other times blamed on the chaotic state of
government and the strain of the war. However, Himmler did speak to Hitler about the Holocaust before it
was carried out
, ATTITUDES TOWARDS ETHNIC MINORITIES IN WEIMAR 1918-32
Statistics Key Dates
• In 1918, Jewish population was about 1% of German population 1922 Rathenau
• 1/3 of Jews lived in Berlin (antisemites called it ‘Jew Berlin’ Assassinated
• German Peoples Offensive and Defensive Alliance had 170,000
1926 Bavaria restricts
members in 1923
Gypsies’ movements
• 500 mixed race children born after 1923 (due to French colonial
troops) 1927 Bavarian Gypsies must
• In 1925, there were over 700,000 Polish speakers in Germany (500k carry ID
spoke both German and Polish)
Summary
• Pre-war
o Idea of ’volk’ had dominated since 1871
§ Ethnic minorities were not viewed as equal to ethnic Germans
§ Partial integration existed and this attitude was more social/cultural than political
o Ethnic minorities and ethnic Germans still had their own separate spaces, like clubs and associations
• Attitudes
o Elite conservatives were less welcoming than city-based liberals
o Eugenics was a growing ideology in Weimar and used to support killing of minorities
o Discrimination was rampant but usually ‘minor’ – paid less, judges were harsher on them
o Jewish people
§ Small portion of the population and the few Jewish politicians were targeted – Rathenau in 1922
§ Anti-Semitic organizations like the German People’s Offensive and Defensive Alliance claimed
Jews had cost Germany the war (such groups were usually banned eventually)
§ Groups like the Reich Federation of Jewish Soldiers were set up to fight antisemitism
o Gypsies
§ Discriminated against because they did not work (in a German traditional sense), pay taxes, or
integrate
o Polish People
§ Many Polish ended up on German territory and vice versa due to redrawn ToV borders
§ Disliked especially after WWI because they had fought on different sides
o Black people
§ Rising discrimination following 1923 invasion of the Ruhr
§ Black colonial French troops were accused of raping Germans, resulting in mixed-race children
who were denounced as ‘Germany’s Shame’
• Policies
o Article 113 of constitution: groups that spoke a different language couldn’t legally be stopped from using
this language or preserving their national identity in daily life
o 1926 and 1927 Bavarian laws restricted gypsies’ movements and latter mandated carrying ID
o No federal policies but some states like Hesse, Prussia, and Bavaria had similar policies against
minorities
• Influence of the economy
o During depression and post-WWI, Jews were blamed for financial troubles and many turned to extremist
parties, which were largely antisemitic
• Influence of culture/history
o Discrimination was cultural and historic – seen as acceptable/enabled
, CHANGING LIVING STANDARDS 1945-89
Statistics
• By 1963, 63% of homes had a fridge and 42% had a TV – by 1985, both numbers were at 82%
• By the 1980s, around 90% of people were covered by benefits and healthcare
• People in 1980 lived on average 12 years longer than people in 1950
• In 1973, the top 1% of households owned 78% of the wealth while in 1988 they owned 45%
• In 1957, the largest share of income was spent on food (~37%) vs on consumer goods/services in 1985 (~48%)
Summary
§ Post-war damage meant families were torn apart and many were homeless and starving
§ The refugee influx put pressure on the destroyed housing infrastructure (caused by bombing during WWII)
o Ministry of Housing was established to oversee rebuilding
o Rents were frozen and construction industry was given tax concessions
o Housing associations were set up to build homes – some for state-run social housing, some for workers
of state industries (like VW), some privately owned
§ more people spent money on consumer goods as the economy strengthened
§ real wages kept ahead of prices throughout the period (even if only marginally at times)
§ 1980s pension reforms meant most people received a pension – and life expectancy was more than a decade
longer than in 1950s
§ Social inequality had deepened – wealth was restricted to a small percent of the population throughout the
period
o More evenly dispersed by the end, however
Statistics Key Dates
• April 1947, there were 10 million refugees and 1973 government stopped hiring guest workers
‘expellees ‘in the FRG
1975 guest workers’ children given same benefits
• Between 1961 and 1973, about 3 million German
workers switched from blue-collar to white-collar 1977 ban removed, guest workers hired again
jobs
• 25% of workers in Germany in 1964 had been there 1978 Schmit appoints commissioner
over 3 years (frequently renewed 1-year guest
contracts)
• After 1973 ban, number of guest workers fell to under Key Figures/Terms
2 million
Guest worker: foreign worker hired on a 1-year
• 60% of foreign children in schools were Muslim
contract that could be renewed or terminated once it
ended
Summary
• Attitudes
o Trade unions feared adding more foreign workers would disadvantage Germans – led to political change
o During economic booms, guest workers benefited Germans by letting them pursue desirable, white-
collar jobs
o Guest workers were viewed as ‘less’ than German citizens and did not have the same legal rights
o Germans were usually hostile towards guest workers who did not integrate, but scorned them if they
tried to learn German, for example
o Many ended up establishing their own schools due to cultural tensions in education
§ Most pre-schools were Christian and so non-German children joining grundschule struggled
§ For example, Muslim children had little to no language help or prior education in Germany
• Policies
o Government guaranteed non-German workers the same wages and gave preference to German workers
when hiring (to appease trade unions)
o Federal Office for Labor Recruitment ran offices in countries Germany had labor agreements with
§ Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Yugoslavia
o Workers had no citizenship rights and their legal rights were unclear until 1978, when Schmidt appointed
a Federal Commissioner for Foreigners’ Affairs to promote integration and organize unrestricted
residence
o In November 1973, government stopped hiring guest workers and prevented workers in Germany from
bringing their family
o The ban was removed in 1977 and the number of guest workers increased again
o Guest workers’ employers had to house them, but they were often in cheap housing far from anyone,
contributing to exclusion/isolation
• Influence of Economic factors
o Nearly all policies and attitudes towards ethnic minorities were driven by economic factors in the FRG
o Changes in treatment were driven by economic recession – guest workers were welcomed during
economic booms but restricted during all recessions and crises
• Comparing periods
o Weimar: attitudes were driven moderately by economic factors, mixed with cultural and historical
o Nazi: attitudes were driven by racial ideology and influenced by economic and historic factors
o FRG: attitudes were driven by economic factors and moderately by political policies
, NAZI RACIAL POLICIES AND THE HOLOCAUST 1933-45
Statistics Key Dates
• 7 million non-Jewish soviet people were killed 8th Nov 1938 Kristallnacht
• 6 million Jews were killed
April 1933 Earliest bans and boycotts
• 500,000 Gypsies were killed
• 400,000 people were estimated to have been Sept 1935 Nuremburg Race laws
sterilized
• 250,000 disabled people were killed
• 15,000 homosexuals were killed Key Figures/Terms
Social Darwinism – belief that certain ethnic groups were
more or less advanced than others
Summary
• Forced emigration 1933-39
o Jewish people were encouraged to leave Germany and forced to pay a ‘tax’ of around ½ of their wealth to
do so – foreign countries began placing ‘quotas’ on the number of Jews allowed in
o From 1939 Jews were discouraged from leaving, and the ‘tax’ to emigrate was almost everything but a
suitcase per person
• Bans and Boycotts April 1933
o Enforced by SA on Jewish business, violently discouraging buying from them
o Restricted entry to university, sporting groups, prevented from sending telegrams and working for
newspapers or as financial advisors
• Concentration/Labor Camps 1933
o Oranienburg the first one, for political prisoners
o Used for any ‘lesser’ races, especially Jews, Poles, black people, and Gypsies
o Hardly any food paired with intense labor meant that most people died, even though they weren’t
technically executed
• Sterilization 1934
o Anyone deemed ‘unfit’ to reproduce could be sterilized, often with significant health risks
• Nuremburg Race Laws 1935
o The first of the Nazis’ more severe policies, restricting Jewish freedoms to own businesses, work, and take
part in society
• Kristallnacht 9th November 1938
o 1st large-scale organized attacks on Jewish people and synagogues – the Jewish were forced to pay for
repairs
• Euthanasia 1939
o Mentally ill people were killed because of Nazi theories of social Darwinism + superiority
• Einsatzgruppen 1939
o Groups technically intended to hunt down Polish resistance, but by 1942 they were killing Jews en masse
• Ghettos - 1939
o Jewish people were placed in Ghettos, places with very little food, water, electricity, and medicine
o They were often taken to camps from Ghettos, or left there to further Nazi propaganda
o Claims that they were unkempt, dirty, and ‘lesser’ were supported with pictures of them in the ghettos
• The Final Solution 1942
o At a conference in Wannsee in 1942, the ‘final solution’ (death camps) was decided, and Jews were sent to
camps to be executed. Around 5 were set up, and you only worked there if you were waiting to be gassed
o Holocaust is sometimes blamed on Hitler’s antisemitism, other times blamed on the chaotic state of
government and the strain of the war. However, Himmler did speak to Hitler about the Holocaust before it
was carried out
, ATTITUDES TOWARDS ETHNIC MINORITIES IN WEIMAR 1918-32
Statistics Key Dates
• In 1918, Jewish population was about 1% of German population 1922 Rathenau
• 1/3 of Jews lived in Berlin (antisemites called it ‘Jew Berlin’ Assassinated
• German Peoples Offensive and Defensive Alliance had 170,000
1926 Bavaria restricts
members in 1923
Gypsies’ movements
• 500 mixed race children born after 1923 (due to French colonial
troops) 1927 Bavarian Gypsies must
• In 1925, there were over 700,000 Polish speakers in Germany (500k carry ID
spoke both German and Polish)
Summary
• Pre-war
o Idea of ’volk’ had dominated since 1871
§ Ethnic minorities were not viewed as equal to ethnic Germans
§ Partial integration existed and this attitude was more social/cultural than political
o Ethnic minorities and ethnic Germans still had their own separate spaces, like clubs and associations
• Attitudes
o Elite conservatives were less welcoming than city-based liberals
o Eugenics was a growing ideology in Weimar and used to support killing of minorities
o Discrimination was rampant but usually ‘minor’ – paid less, judges were harsher on them
o Jewish people
§ Small portion of the population and the few Jewish politicians were targeted – Rathenau in 1922
§ Anti-Semitic organizations like the German People’s Offensive and Defensive Alliance claimed
Jews had cost Germany the war (such groups were usually banned eventually)
§ Groups like the Reich Federation of Jewish Soldiers were set up to fight antisemitism
o Gypsies
§ Discriminated against because they did not work (in a German traditional sense), pay taxes, or
integrate
o Polish People
§ Many Polish ended up on German territory and vice versa due to redrawn ToV borders
§ Disliked especially after WWI because they had fought on different sides
o Black people
§ Rising discrimination following 1923 invasion of the Ruhr
§ Black colonial French troops were accused of raping Germans, resulting in mixed-race children
who were denounced as ‘Germany’s Shame’
• Policies
o Article 113 of constitution: groups that spoke a different language couldn’t legally be stopped from using
this language or preserving their national identity in daily life
o 1926 and 1927 Bavarian laws restricted gypsies’ movements and latter mandated carrying ID
o No federal policies but some states like Hesse, Prussia, and Bavaria had similar policies against
minorities
• Influence of the economy
o During depression and post-WWI, Jews were blamed for financial troubles and many turned to extremist
parties, which were largely antisemitic
• Influence of culture/history
o Discrimination was cultural and historic – seen as acceptable/enabled
, CHANGING LIVING STANDARDS 1945-89
Statistics
• By 1963, 63% of homes had a fridge and 42% had a TV – by 1985, both numbers were at 82%
• By the 1980s, around 90% of people were covered by benefits and healthcare
• People in 1980 lived on average 12 years longer than people in 1950
• In 1973, the top 1% of households owned 78% of the wealth while in 1988 they owned 45%
• In 1957, the largest share of income was spent on food (~37%) vs on consumer goods/services in 1985 (~48%)
Summary
§ Post-war damage meant families were torn apart and many were homeless and starving
§ The refugee influx put pressure on the destroyed housing infrastructure (caused by bombing during WWII)
o Ministry of Housing was established to oversee rebuilding
o Rents were frozen and construction industry was given tax concessions
o Housing associations were set up to build homes – some for state-run social housing, some for workers
of state industries (like VW), some privately owned
§ more people spent money on consumer goods as the economy strengthened
§ real wages kept ahead of prices throughout the period (even if only marginally at times)
§ 1980s pension reforms meant most people received a pension – and life expectancy was more than a decade
longer than in 1950s
§ Social inequality had deepened – wealth was restricted to a small percent of the population throughout the
period
o More evenly dispersed by the end, however
