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Exam (elaborations)

STA1610 LATEST EXAM PACK 2025(Introduction to Statistics)

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STA1610 LATEST EXAM PACK 2025(Introduction to Statistics)












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Uploaded on
September 6, 2025
Number of pages
97
Written in
2025/2026
Type
Exam (elaborations)
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STA1610 LATEST EXAM
PACK 2025

QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
For assistance contact
Email:

, lOMoARcPSD|31863004




STA1610
Introduction to Statistics




October 25, 2024

, lOMoARcPSD|31863004




Contents

1 Data and Statistics 1
1.1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Elements, variables, and observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Scales of Measurement . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Categorical and Quantitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Cross-sectional and time series data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Data Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Statistical Studies. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Data acquisition errors. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Statistical Inference. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Analytics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Big Data and Data Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Descriptive Statistics: Tabular and Graphical Presentations 9
2.1 Summarising Categorical Data. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Relative Frequency and Percentage Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 Bar Charts and Pie Charts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Summarising Quantitative Data . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Cumulative Distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Numerical Measures 13
3.1 Measures of Location. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Measures of Variability (Dispersion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Measures of Distributional Shape, Relative Location, and Detecting .Outliers . . . . . 16
3.4 Exploratory Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Measures of Relationship . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Introduction to Probability 19
4.1 Experiments, Counting Rules, and Assigning Probabilities . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Counting Rules, Combinations, and Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.2 Assigning Probabilities. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Events and Their Probabilities . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Some Basic Relationships of Probability . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Objective Probabilities
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Bayes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25




iii

, lOMoARcPSD|31863004




CONTENTS


5 Discrete Probability Distributions 31
5.1 Random Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Discrete Probability Distributions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 Expected Value and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4 Binomial Probability Distribution. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 Poisson Probability Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

6 Continuous Probability Distributions 45
6.1 Normal Probability Distribution. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.1.1 Standard Normal Probability Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.1.2 Computing Probabilities for Any Normal Distribution . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 Cumulative Standard Normal Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7 Sampling and Sampling Distributions 55
7.1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Sampling Distribution 𝑋of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3 Sampling Distribution of Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

8 Interval Estimation 67
8.1 Population Mean: Standard Deviation
𝜎) Known
( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2 Population Mean: Standard Deviation
𝜎) Unknown
( .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.3 Confidence Interval Estimate for Proportion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

9 Hypothesis Testing 73
9.1 Fundamental Concepts of Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2 Hypothesis Testing of the Mean. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.1 Population Standard Deviation 𝜎) Known
( .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.2.2 Population Standard Deviation 𝜎) Unknown
( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.3 Hypothesis Testing for Proportion
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

10 Chi-Square Distribution 77

11 Regression and Correlation Analysis 83
11.1 Simple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.2 Correlation Analysis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86




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