Method Description Benefits Limitations
Ethnography Methodological framework - Provides rich, detailed, and nuanced - Time-intensive: Typically requires a protracted
for qualitative research that insights into everyday meanings and period in the field (e.g., 18 months to several years)
involves in-depth study of practices within specific local contexts due to to develop rapport and reach data saturation.
social environments, sustained contact with individuals. - Limited generalizability: Often conducted by a
including physical spaces - Effective for studying previously single researcher focusing on a specific group or
and customs, to gain an unresearched or under-researched community, making it difficult to generalize results
insider's understanding of populations, such as criminal actors and their to other settings.
a social context communities, offering insights into social - Involves inherent ethical contradictions and legal
dynamics not readily accessible to outsiders. ambiguities, requiring researchers to face personal
- Can increase objectivity by revealing and professional risks.
patterns that are largely unreported or - Maintaining objectivity and distance from
unrecorded by official means. subjects can be challenging, with a risk of "going
- Often serves as a foundation for theory native" and losing critical perspective or exploiting
development, rather than just testing pre- participants.
existing hypotheses. - Researcher's characteristics (e.g., age, race, gender)
- Allows for a holistic investigation, can impact observed outcomes.
gathering diverse data within the natural - Confirmation bias can influence data analysis if
setting. researcher values or assumptions are not reflexively
- Offers unique value for understanding managed.
hidden populations and their activities - Despite its value, it has often been marginalized in
social science due to the dominance of quantitative
research
Online/Virtual Adapts traditional Offers real-time access to the lives of Presents complex and unanticipated ethical
Ethnography ethnographic methods for individuals and new content. Can dilemmas, especially concerning consent, privacy,
the digital environment complement on-the-ground findings and, and confidentiality, as participants often use real
with a "glass window" approach (two-way identities online. Online content can be heavily
observation), fosters greater transparency. coded or misrepresented, making interpretation
Enables communication with diffuse challenging without "domain experts". The rapid
populations across the globe at low cost evolution of social media can quickly render
methodological guidelines obsolete
Auto-ethnography Uses the researcher's Can provide fresh inductive analysis and is Can be perceived as self-indulgent or lead to over-
personal experience in data particularly valuable when access to the field generalization of limited singular experiences.
gathering and analysis is difficult Memories are not always reliable representations,
, and verification of data exclusive to the researcher's
memory is impossible
Visual Ethnography Incorporates images (from Allows for self-representation, and visual Access to visual recording may be limited for certain
participants or researchers) data can be permanently available for groups (e.g., criminals). A single image can
as an aid to observation reanalysis. Can incorporate multisensory misrepresent the whole, and there's a risk of selective
input focus or manipulative editing to push ideological
positions
Critical Ethnography Focuses on uncovering Exposes power relations and can inform May risk portraying subjugated groups as passive
underlying structures of policy or activism for social change victims and could raise false hopes for problems
power and control requiring broader political intervention
Ultra-realist Aims to overcome Offers a more incisive explanatory power by
Ethnography generalization and connecting localized meanings to broad
researcher bias by creating global structures
collaborative ethnographic
and theoretical networks to
produce generalizable data
Cognitive Explores cognitive Useful for analyzing cultures in terms of their
Ethnography processes within a setting, cognitive practices and their consequences
considering the influence of
the material world and
social context
Viral Emphasizes mutable, Moves beyond place-based ethnography to
Methodologies / adaptive theories and engage with the complexities of identity and
Connective combines online and offline connectivity in digital spaces
Ethnography ethnographic approaches
Interviews A primary method for - Provides rich, "thick description" that - Generalizability issues: Findings are often not
gathering data through yields a deeper understanding of authentic, intended to be generalizable to larger populations.
direct interaction with lived experiences. - Researcher influence: Interviewer's questions,
research subjects to obtain - Allows researchers to gain fine-grained probing style, and even non-verbal cues can
in-depth, qualitative data details about participants' opinions and influence responses.
about their experiences, experiences that are difficult to obtain - Authenticity concerns: It can be difficult to be
opinions, and perspectives. otherwise. entirely sure that all motivations and practices are
Interviews can be semi- - Facilitates the development of rapport and revealed, especially with illicit activities.
structured or unstructured, trust, which is crucial for sensitive topics. - Time-consuming: Transcribing and analyzing in-
allowing for flexibility and - Enables participants to respond in their own depth interview data can be very time-intensive
Ethnography Methodological framework - Provides rich, detailed, and nuanced - Time-intensive: Typically requires a protracted
for qualitative research that insights into everyday meanings and period in the field (e.g., 18 months to several years)
involves in-depth study of practices within specific local contexts due to to develop rapport and reach data saturation.
social environments, sustained contact with individuals. - Limited generalizability: Often conducted by a
including physical spaces - Effective for studying previously single researcher focusing on a specific group or
and customs, to gain an unresearched or under-researched community, making it difficult to generalize results
insider's understanding of populations, such as criminal actors and their to other settings.
a social context communities, offering insights into social - Involves inherent ethical contradictions and legal
dynamics not readily accessible to outsiders. ambiguities, requiring researchers to face personal
- Can increase objectivity by revealing and professional risks.
patterns that are largely unreported or - Maintaining objectivity and distance from
unrecorded by official means. subjects can be challenging, with a risk of "going
- Often serves as a foundation for theory native" and losing critical perspective or exploiting
development, rather than just testing pre- participants.
existing hypotheses. - Researcher's characteristics (e.g., age, race, gender)
- Allows for a holistic investigation, can impact observed outcomes.
gathering diverse data within the natural - Confirmation bias can influence data analysis if
setting. researcher values or assumptions are not reflexively
- Offers unique value for understanding managed.
hidden populations and their activities - Despite its value, it has often been marginalized in
social science due to the dominance of quantitative
research
Online/Virtual Adapts traditional Offers real-time access to the lives of Presents complex and unanticipated ethical
Ethnography ethnographic methods for individuals and new content. Can dilemmas, especially concerning consent, privacy,
the digital environment complement on-the-ground findings and, and confidentiality, as participants often use real
with a "glass window" approach (two-way identities online. Online content can be heavily
observation), fosters greater transparency. coded or misrepresented, making interpretation
Enables communication with diffuse challenging without "domain experts". The rapid
populations across the globe at low cost evolution of social media can quickly render
methodological guidelines obsolete
Auto-ethnography Uses the researcher's Can provide fresh inductive analysis and is Can be perceived as self-indulgent or lead to over-
personal experience in data particularly valuable when access to the field generalization of limited singular experiences.
gathering and analysis is difficult Memories are not always reliable representations,
, and verification of data exclusive to the researcher's
memory is impossible
Visual Ethnography Incorporates images (from Allows for self-representation, and visual Access to visual recording may be limited for certain
participants or researchers) data can be permanently available for groups (e.g., criminals). A single image can
as an aid to observation reanalysis. Can incorporate multisensory misrepresent the whole, and there's a risk of selective
input focus or manipulative editing to push ideological
positions
Critical Ethnography Focuses on uncovering Exposes power relations and can inform May risk portraying subjugated groups as passive
underlying structures of policy or activism for social change victims and could raise false hopes for problems
power and control requiring broader political intervention
Ultra-realist Aims to overcome Offers a more incisive explanatory power by
Ethnography generalization and connecting localized meanings to broad
researcher bias by creating global structures
collaborative ethnographic
and theoretical networks to
produce generalizable data
Cognitive Explores cognitive Useful for analyzing cultures in terms of their
Ethnography processes within a setting, cognitive practices and their consequences
considering the influence of
the material world and
social context
Viral Emphasizes mutable, Moves beyond place-based ethnography to
Methodologies / adaptive theories and engage with the complexities of identity and
Connective combines online and offline connectivity in digital spaces
Ethnography ethnographic approaches
Interviews A primary method for - Provides rich, "thick description" that - Generalizability issues: Findings are often not
gathering data through yields a deeper understanding of authentic, intended to be generalizable to larger populations.
direct interaction with lived experiences. - Researcher influence: Interviewer's questions,
research subjects to obtain - Allows researchers to gain fine-grained probing style, and even non-verbal cues can
in-depth, qualitative data details about participants' opinions and influence responses.
about their experiences, experiences that are difficult to obtain - Authenticity concerns: It can be difficult to be
opinions, and perspectives. otherwise. entirely sure that all motivations and practices are
Interviews can be semi- - Facilitates the development of rapport and revealed, especially with illicit activities.
structured or unstructured, trust, which is crucial for sensitive topics. - Time-consuming: Transcribing and analyzing in-
allowing for flexibility and - Enables participants to respond in their own depth interview data can be very time-intensive
