Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods
Central Topic: Foundations of Psychology
Concepts:
● Definition of psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
● Goals of psychology: Describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental
processes.
People:
● Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab, and is known as the father of
psychology.
● William James: Founder of functionalism.
● Sigmund Freud: Pioneer of psychoanalysis.
● Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and B.F. Skinner: Advocates of behaviorism.
● Edward B. Titchener: Developed Structuralism
● Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow: Leaders of the development of humanistic
psychology
Key Terms:
● Structuralism: Analyzing the structure of the mind through introspection.
● Functionalism: Studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their
environment.
● Psychoanalysis: Exploring unconscious motives and conflicts.
● Behaviorism: The study of observable behavior.
● Humanism: Emphasizes personal growth and potential.
Examples:
● Using experiments to study memory processes.
● Observing children's behavior in different settings.
Vocabulary:
● Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
● Independent Variable: The variable manipulated in an experiment.
● Dependent Variable: The variable measured in an experiment.
● Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.
● Ethics: Guidelines for responsible psychological research.
1.1 What is Psychology
, ● Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including
thoughts, emotions, and actions.
1.2 Contemporary Psychology
● Perspectives:
○ Biological: Focuses on the biological underpinnings of behavior, including
genetics, the brain, neurotransmitters, and hormones. Example: How
neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine influence mood disorders.
○ Behavioral: Emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned
through interactions with the environment. Example: Pavlov’s classical
conditioning experiment where dogs were conditioned to associate a bell with
food.
○ Cognitive: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and
problem-solving. Example: How cognitive biases affect decision-making.
○ Humanistic: Centers on personal growth, self-actualization, and the positive
aspects of human experience. Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
○ Psychodynamic: Examines the influence of the unconscious mind, early
childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts on behavior. Example: Freud’s
theory of repression and defense mechanisms.
○ Sociocultural: Looks at how society and culture shape behavior and thinking.
Example: The impact of social norms on aggression or cooperation.
1.3 The Scientific Method
● Steps:
1. Formulate a hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement about the relationship
between variables.
2. Operational definition: Clearly define variables so they can be measured.
3. Research design: Choose a method of investigation (e.g., experimental,
correlational).
4. Observation/Experimentation: Gather data through observation or experiments.
5. Interpretation: Analyze the data to determine whether the hypothesis is
supported.
6. Theory formation: Develop general principles that organize the research findings.
● Importance: The scientific method ensures that research is systematic, objective, and
replicable.
1.4 Descriptive Research
● Methods:
○ Observational studies: Watching subjects in their natural environment without
interference.
○ Case studies: In-depth investigation of a single subject or a small group of
subjects.
, ○ Surveys: Collecting data through self-reported answers from a large group.
● Strengths: Allows researchers to gather data on a wide range of behaviors and
phenomena.
● Limitations: Cannot determine cause-effect relationships due to lack of control over
variables.
1.5 Experimental Research
● Key elements:
○ Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect.
○ Dependent variable: The outcome that is measured; it is expected to change as a
result of the manipulation.
○ Control group: A group that does not receive the experimental treatment, serving
as a baseline for comparison.
○ Experimental group: Receives the treatment being tested.
● Purpose: To establish cause-effect relationships by controlling variables and randomizing
assignment.
● Strengths: A controlled environment allows for the isolation of variables.
● Limitations: Ethical concerns (e.g., informed consent, deception) and artificial settings
may not reflect real-world behavior.
1.6 Ethics in Psychological Research
● Ethical principles:
○ Informed consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study and agree
to participate.
○ Confidentiality: Researchers must protect the privacy of participants.
○ Protection from harm: Participants should not be exposed to unreasonable
physical or psychological risks.
○ Debriefing: After the study, participants should be informed about the purpose
and results of the research.
● Examples of unethical studies:
○ Milgram’s obedience experiment: Participants believed they were administering
increasingly severe electric shocks to a confederate.
○ Stanford prison experiment: Participants were assigned roles as guards or
prisoners and displayed abusive behavior.
● Regulations: APA (American Psychological Association) guidelines help ensure ethical
standards in research.
Chapter 2: Neuroscience and Behavior
Central Topic: Biological Foundations of Behavior
Concepts:
, ● Neurons and neural communication.
● Structure and function of the nervous system.
● Brain structures and their roles.
People:
● Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Discovered the structure of neurons.
● Paul Broca: Identified Broca's area in the brain.
Key Terms:
● Neuron: Basic unit of the nervous system.
● Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs.
● Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that transmit messages between neurons.
● Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt.
Examples:
● Reflex actions like pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
● Effects of neurotransmitter imbalances on mood and behavior.
Vocabulary:
● Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord.
● Peripheral Nervous System: Includes all nerves outside the CNS.
● Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
● Hemispheric Specialization: The different functions of the left and right brain
hemispheres.
2.1 Introduction: Neuroscience and Behavior
● Definition: Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system and its role in behavior and
cognitive functions.
● Importance: Understanding how the brain and nervous system influence behavior and
mental processes is key to treating neurological and psychological disorders.
2.2 The Neuron: The Basic Unit of Communication
● Structure: Neurons consist of dendrites (receive signals), a cell body (soma, contains the
nucleus), an axon (transmits signals), and terminal buttons (release neurotransmitters).
● Function: Neurons communicate via electrical impulses that travel down the axon and
release neurotransmitters into the synapse (a gap between neurons).
● Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers like serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine,
norepinephrine, and GABA that affect mood, arousal, and other functions. Example:
Serotonin’s role in mood regulation and its association with depression.
Central Topic: Foundations of Psychology
Concepts:
● Definition of psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
● Goals of psychology: Describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental
processes.
People:
● Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab, and is known as the father of
psychology.
● William James: Founder of functionalism.
● Sigmund Freud: Pioneer of psychoanalysis.
● Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and B.F. Skinner: Advocates of behaviorism.
● Edward B. Titchener: Developed Structuralism
● Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow: Leaders of the development of humanistic
psychology
Key Terms:
● Structuralism: Analyzing the structure of the mind through introspection.
● Functionalism: Studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their
environment.
● Psychoanalysis: Exploring unconscious motives and conflicts.
● Behaviorism: The study of observable behavior.
● Humanism: Emphasizes personal growth and potential.
Examples:
● Using experiments to study memory processes.
● Observing children's behavior in different settings.
Vocabulary:
● Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
● Independent Variable: The variable manipulated in an experiment.
● Dependent Variable: The variable measured in an experiment.
● Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.
● Ethics: Guidelines for responsible psychological research.
1.1 What is Psychology
, ● Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including
thoughts, emotions, and actions.
1.2 Contemporary Psychology
● Perspectives:
○ Biological: Focuses on the biological underpinnings of behavior, including
genetics, the brain, neurotransmitters, and hormones. Example: How
neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine influence mood disorders.
○ Behavioral: Emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned
through interactions with the environment. Example: Pavlov’s classical
conditioning experiment where dogs were conditioned to associate a bell with
food.
○ Cognitive: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and
problem-solving. Example: How cognitive biases affect decision-making.
○ Humanistic: Centers on personal growth, self-actualization, and the positive
aspects of human experience. Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
○ Psychodynamic: Examines the influence of the unconscious mind, early
childhood experiences, and unresolved conflicts on behavior. Example: Freud’s
theory of repression and defense mechanisms.
○ Sociocultural: Looks at how society and culture shape behavior and thinking.
Example: The impact of social norms on aggression or cooperation.
1.3 The Scientific Method
● Steps:
1. Formulate a hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement about the relationship
between variables.
2. Operational definition: Clearly define variables so they can be measured.
3. Research design: Choose a method of investigation (e.g., experimental,
correlational).
4. Observation/Experimentation: Gather data through observation or experiments.
5. Interpretation: Analyze the data to determine whether the hypothesis is
supported.
6. Theory formation: Develop general principles that organize the research findings.
● Importance: The scientific method ensures that research is systematic, objective, and
replicable.
1.4 Descriptive Research
● Methods:
○ Observational studies: Watching subjects in their natural environment without
interference.
○ Case studies: In-depth investigation of a single subject or a small group of
subjects.
, ○ Surveys: Collecting data through self-reported answers from a large group.
● Strengths: Allows researchers to gather data on a wide range of behaviors and
phenomena.
● Limitations: Cannot determine cause-effect relationships due to lack of control over
variables.
1.5 Experimental Research
● Key elements:
○ Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect.
○ Dependent variable: The outcome that is measured; it is expected to change as a
result of the manipulation.
○ Control group: A group that does not receive the experimental treatment, serving
as a baseline for comparison.
○ Experimental group: Receives the treatment being tested.
● Purpose: To establish cause-effect relationships by controlling variables and randomizing
assignment.
● Strengths: A controlled environment allows for the isolation of variables.
● Limitations: Ethical concerns (e.g., informed consent, deception) and artificial settings
may not reflect real-world behavior.
1.6 Ethics in Psychological Research
● Ethical principles:
○ Informed consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study and agree
to participate.
○ Confidentiality: Researchers must protect the privacy of participants.
○ Protection from harm: Participants should not be exposed to unreasonable
physical or psychological risks.
○ Debriefing: After the study, participants should be informed about the purpose
and results of the research.
● Examples of unethical studies:
○ Milgram’s obedience experiment: Participants believed they were administering
increasingly severe electric shocks to a confederate.
○ Stanford prison experiment: Participants were assigned roles as guards or
prisoners and displayed abusive behavior.
● Regulations: APA (American Psychological Association) guidelines help ensure ethical
standards in research.
Chapter 2: Neuroscience and Behavior
Central Topic: Biological Foundations of Behavior
Concepts:
, ● Neurons and neural communication.
● Structure and function of the nervous system.
● Brain structures and their roles.
People:
● Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Discovered the structure of neurons.
● Paul Broca: Identified Broca's area in the brain.
Key Terms:
● Neuron: Basic unit of the nervous system.
● Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs.
● Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that transmit messages between neurons.
● Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt.
Examples:
● Reflex actions like pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
● Effects of neurotransmitter imbalances on mood and behavior.
Vocabulary:
● Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord.
● Peripheral Nervous System: Includes all nerves outside the CNS.
● Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
● Hemispheric Specialization: The different functions of the left and right brain
hemispheres.
2.1 Introduction: Neuroscience and Behavior
● Definition: Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system and its role in behavior and
cognitive functions.
● Importance: Understanding how the brain and nervous system influence behavior and
mental processes is key to treating neurological and psychological disorders.
2.2 The Neuron: The Basic Unit of Communication
● Structure: Neurons consist of dendrites (receive signals), a cell body (soma, contains the
nucleus), an axon (transmits signals), and terminal buttons (release neurotransmitters).
● Function: Neurons communicate via electrical impulses that travel down the axon and
release neurotransmitters into the synapse (a gap between neurons).
● Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers like serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine,
norepinephrine, and GABA that affect mood, arousal, and other functions. Example:
Serotonin’s role in mood regulation and its association with depression.
