SUMMARY EUROPEAN INTEGRATION SINCE 1945
Table of content
Question 1: Why is there no European Army? .......................................................................................................... 3
The Cold War .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Pan-Europa............................................................................................................................................................. 3
French-German rapprochement ............................................................................................................................... 4
Benelux as an example ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Marshall Plan .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Council of Europe .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Schuman Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Re-arming Germany ................................................................................................................................................ 6
European defence ................................................................................................................................................... 6
War in Europe ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Question 2: Why is the single market never fully realised?...................................................................................... 8
Distrust ................................................................................................................................................................... 8
The Spaak Report ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Snowball effect ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Shift in the balance of power .................................................................................................................................... 9
Landmark cases .....................................................................................................................................................10
Empty Chair Crisis .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Veto after veto ........................................................................................................................................................12
Illusion of fulfilment .................................................................................................................................................12
Question 3: Why do the British want to set their own course? ...............................................................................13
A fresh impulse.......................................................................................................................................................13
A single currency within 10 years ............................................................................................................................13
Yes to Europe ........................................................................................................................................................13
Towards a European Union .....................................................................................................................................14
The Tindermans Report ..........................................................................................................................................14
‘No, no, no’.............................................................................................................................................................15
Brexit referendum ...................................................................................................................................................15
Brexit means Brexit ................................................................................................................................................16
Perfidious Albion ....................................................................................................................................................16
Question 4: Why do we use the euro? .....................................................................................................................17
Re-launch ..............................................................................................................................................................17
German-Italian initiative ..........................................................................................................................................17
Jacques Delors ......................................................................................................................................................17
Objective 1992 .......................................................................................................................................................18
European identity ...................................................................................................................................................18
Implosion ...............................................................................................................................................................19
East West relations .................................................................................................................................................19
The road to Maastricht ............................................................................................................................................19
Franco-German exchange ......................................................................................................................................20
Three pillars ...........................................................................................................................................................21
Three stages ..........................................................................................................................................................21
Monetary adventure................................................................................................................................................22
Question 5: Why do new countries keep joining? ...................................................................................................23
Sputtering Maastricht ..............................................................................................................................................23
Club Med ...............................................................................................................................................................23
Big Bang ................................................................................................................................................................23
Amsterdam ............................................................................................................................................................23
Resit ......................................................................................................................................................................24
Royal Greenhouses ................................................................................................................................................25
Fourth time’s the charm ..........................................................................................................................................25
A yellow card..........................................................................................................................................................25
Great attraction ......................................................................................................................................................26
An uneasy paradox.................................................................................................................................................26
Question 6: Why does every crisis strengthen the EU? ..........................................................................................27
European debt crisis ...............................................................................................................................................27
Risk of contamination .............................................................................................................................................27
Stroll along the Deauville beach ..............................................................................................................................27
The Troika ..............................................................................................................................................................27
Turning point ..........................................................................................................................................................28
Change of power ....................................................................................................................................................28
Emu 2.0 .................................................................................................................................................................28
Democratic deficit ...................................................................................................................................................29
Spitzenkandidaten ..................................................................................................................................................29
1
,Naming and shaming ..............................................................................................................................................29
Terrorist attacks ......................................................................................................................................................30
Coordination...........................................................................................................................................................30
Russian bear ..........................................................................................................................................................30
The migration crisis ................................................................................................................................................31
Relocation scheme .................................................................................................................................................31
EU-Turkey deal ......................................................................................................................................................31
Pushbacks .............................................................................................................................................................32
Fortress Europe .....................................................................................................................................................32
Covid-19 pandemic.................................................................................................................................................32
Three raises ...........................................................................................................................................................32
Surprises................................................................................................................................................................32
Vaccination ............................................................................................................................................................33
Climate crisis ..........................................................................................................................................................33
Slava Ukraini! .........................................................................................................................................................33
Ever more Europe ..................................................................................................................................................33
2
,Question 1: Why is there no European Army?
The Cold War
After WW II there was hope for a more constructive international cooperation. There was need for a new
international organisation, based on sovereign equality between peaceful states. This led to establishing the
United Nations with the aim to bring peace, security, cooperation and friendly relations.
United Nations:
- 25 April 1945: 850 representatives from 50 countries met to formally establish the UN.
- Credibility and effectiveness: UN Security Council
o Permanent members (veto-power): China, France, Soviet Union, UK, US
o 6 rotating non-permanent members (every 2 year).
In 1965: 10 rotating members
Even though the aimed for peace, Stalin accused US and UK of waiting too long on opening a Western front
in WW II – this led to distrust about the motives of the West, despite the UN. The communists had a good
position in countries like Belgium, France and Italy after WW II. And this is why the West became suspicious
of the Soviet Union too.
After the war, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and a part of Finland, became involved in the Greek
Civil War and the communist coup in Czechoslovakia. Furthermore, they also use their veto-power in the UN
a lot. But this optimism towards the communists disappears.
The Soviets were perceived as a threat, which is what led to the NATO.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization:
- April 1949 – Treaty of Washington: collective defence arrangement
o Aggression against one of the members signifies an attack on all allied countries.
- 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, UK, US
o 1951: Greece, Turkey
- Formalises and consolidates the transatlantic relations between Western Europe and US.
As a counterpart to the NATO, the Soviet Union and communist countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, East
Germany, Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia) created the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
Pan-Europa
After WW I, initiatives emerged for a more peaceful Europe – European unification. Perspectives:
- Cultural: unification from a cosmopolitan viewpoint (before the rise of nationalism).
- Political: unification because a nation state alone is under-equipped to tackle the issues.
- Economic: unification because Europe has to remain competitive with the Soviet Union and US.
Pan-European movement (1923, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi) = European countries join forces through
economic cooperation in ore, coal and mining industries to avert convergence between Germany and the
Soviet Union.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1927) = a pact between Briand (French minister and chairman of pan-European
movement) and Kellogg (American) to bind the world to choose peaceful solutions as an alternative to
warfare when conflicts emerge.
3
, French-German rapprochement
After 3 wars, Franco-Prussian War, WW I and WW II, the relationship between France and Germany was
extremely delicate. Which is why Christian Democrat politicians of both countries met on neutral territory in
Geneva.
- Konrad Adenauer: future Chancellor of Germany
o Founding father of the Federal Republic of Germany after WW II
- Various French Chistian Democrats
This led to the creation of the Nouvelles Équipes Internationales (1927) under the guidance of 80 delegated
from 12 countries.
It was fairly weak but formed a vital switch for the European integration process.
In these meetings, the French and German politicians gave hearing to the speech of Churchill in 1946.
- The British Prime Minister 1940-1945 and 1951-1955
- Supporter of close political and military transatlantic relations.
- Had quit some political authority because the UK was the only Western European country that was
not overrun by the Germans.
- He argues in favour of reconciliation between France and Germany to achieve a United States of
Europe.
Benelux as an example
Benelux (1944) = Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. An international organization regarding a
uniform payment system, increased economic activities and a unified tariff community.
- Benelux Treaty becomes effective in 1948: single customs union.
- Benelux Economic Union (1958): common trade policy with third countries, coordination of
economic, financial and social policy, and the free movement of goods, services, persons and capital.
It was inspired by the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU, 1921) = single currency and customs
union.
They tried to get France and Italy in, as the Fritalux, but this did not work.
The Benelux is made up of 4 relatively autonomous institutions: ministerial committee, general secretariat,
courthouse and parliament. This is seen as the embryo for the 4 institutions that would later be created in
the ECSC and eventually the EU.
Marshall Plan
The cooperation between European countries after WW II is not surprising: ruined economy and military. So,
Western Europe is vulnerable for Stalin’s Red Army.
The US withdrew their troops from liberated areas, but didn’t just want to hand them over, because American
banks had many outstanding loans to Western European governments and wanted to get repaid.
Out self-interest remained the US a key player in Europe (militarily via NATO and economically via
financial support packages).
George Marshall insisted on a relief package (1947) = European Recovery Program/ Marshall Plan.
- US offered a large-scale recovery programme for Western European countries + countries from
Central and Eastern Europe. But the latter had to refuse the offer because of the Soviet Union.
- Headquarters in Paris.
- Became a permanent establishment in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Co-
operation (OOEC).
- In 1961, the OOEC transformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD).
4
Table of content
Question 1: Why is there no European Army? .......................................................................................................... 3
The Cold War .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Pan-Europa............................................................................................................................................................. 3
French-German rapprochement ............................................................................................................................... 4
Benelux as an example ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Marshall Plan .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Council of Europe .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Schuman Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Re-arming Germany ................................................................................................................................................ 6
European defence ................................................................................................................................................... 6
War in Europe ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Question 2: Why is the single market never fully realised?...................................................................................... 8
Distrust ................................................................................................................................................................... 8
The Spaak Report ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Snowball effect ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Shift in the balance of power .................................................................................................................................... 9
Landmark cases .....................................................................................................................................................10
Empty Chair Crisis .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Veto after veto ........................................................................................................................................................12
Illusion of fulfilment .................................................................................................................................................12
Question 3: Why do the British want to set their own course? ...............................................................................13
A fresh impulse.......................................................................................................................................................13
A single currency within 10 years ............................................................................................................................13
Yes to Europe ........................................................................................................................................................13
Towards a European Union .....................................................................................................................................14
The Tindermans Report ..........................................................................................................................................14
‘No, no, no’.............................................................................................................................................................15
Brexit referendum ...................................................................................................................................................15
Brexit means Brexit ................................................................................................................................................16
Perfidious Albion ....................................................................................................................................................16
Question 4: Why do we use the euro? .....................................................................................................................17
Re-launch ..............................................................................................................................................................17
German-Italian initiative ..........................................................................................................................................17
Jacques Delors ......................................................................................................................................................17
Objective 1992 .......................................................................................................................................................18
European identity ...................................................................................................................................................18
Implosion ...............................................................................................................................................................19
East West relations .................................................................................................................................................19
The road to Maastricht ............................................................................................................................................19
Franco-German exchange ......................................................................................................................................20
Three pillars ...........................................................................................................................................................21
Three stages ..........................................................................................................................................................21
Monetary adventure................................................................................................................................................22
Question 5: Why do new countries keep joining? ...................................................................................................23
Sputtering Maastricht ..............................................................................................................................................23
Club Med ...............................................................................................................................................................23
Big Bang ................................................................................................................................................................23
Amsterdam ............................................................................................................................................................23
Resit ......................................................................................................................................................................24
Royal Greenhouses ................................................................................................................................................25
Fourth time’s the charm ..........................................................................................................................................25
A yellow card..........................................................................................................................................................25
Great attraction ......................................................................................................................................................26
An uneasy paradox.................................................................................................................................................26
Question 6: Why does every crisis strengthen the EU? ..........................................................................................27
European debt crisis ...............................................................................................................................................27
Risk of contamination .............................................................................................................................................27
Stroll along the Deauville beach ..............................................................................................................................27
The Troika ..............................................................................................................................................................27
Turning point ..........................................................................................................................................................28
Change of power ....................................................................................................................................................28
Emu 2.0 .................................................................................................................................................................28
Democratic deficit ...................................................................................................................................................29
Spitzenkandidaten ..................................................................................................................................................29
1
,Naming and shaming ..............................................................................................................................................29
Terrorist attacks ......................................................................................................................................................30
Coordination...........................................................................................................................................................30
Russian bear ..........................................................................................................................................................30
The migration crisis ................................................................................................................................................31
Relocation scheme .................................................................................................................................................31
EU-Turkey deal ......................................................................................................................................................31
Pushbacks .............................................................................................................................................................32
Fortress Europe .....................................................................................................................................................32
Covid-19 pandemic.................................................................................................................................................32
Three raises ...........................................................................................................................................................32
Surprises................................................................................................................................................................32
Vaccination ............................................................................................................................................................33
Climate crisis ..........................................................................................................................................................33
Slava Ukraini! .........................................................................................................................................................33
Ever more Europe ..................................................................................................................................................33
2
,Question 1: Why is there no European Army?
The Cold War
After WW II there was hope for a more constructive international cooperation. There was need for a new
international organisation, based on sovereign equality between peaceful states. This led to establishing the
United Nations with the aim to bring peace, security, cooperation and friendly relations.
United Nations:
- 25 April 1945: 850 representatives from 50 countries met to formally establish the UN.
- Credibility and effectiveness: UN Security Council
o Permanent members (veto-power): China, France, Soviet Union, UK, US
o 6 rotating non-permanent members (every 2 year).
In 1965: 10 rotating members
Even though the aimed for peace, Stalin accused US and UK of waiting too long on opening a Western front
in WW II – this led to distrust about the motives of the West, despite the UN. The communists had a good
position in countries like Belgium, France and Italy after WW II. And this is why the West became suspicious
of the Soviet Union too.
After the war, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and a part of Finland, became involved in the Greek
Civil War and the communist coup in Czechoslovakia. Furthermore, they also use their veto-power in the UN
a lot. But this optimism towards the communists disappears.
The Soviets were perceived as a threat, which is what led to the NATO.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization:
- April 1949 – Treaty of Washington: collective defence arrangement
o Aggression against one of the members signifies an attack on all allied countries.
- 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, UK, US
o 1951: Greece, Turkey
- Formalises and consolidates the transatlantic relations between Western Europe and US.
As a counterpart to the NATO, the Soviet Union and communist countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, East
Germany, Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia) created the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
Pan-Europa
After WW I, initiatives emerged for a more peaceful Europe – European unification. Perspectives:
- Cultural: unification from a cosmopolitan viewpoint (before the rise of nationalism).
- Political: unification because a nation state alone is under-equipped to tackle the issues.
- Economic: unification because Europe has to remain competitive with the Soviet Union and US.
Pan-European movement (1923, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi) = European countries join forces through
economic cooperation in ore, coal and mining industries to avert convergence between Germany and the
Soviet Union.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1927) = a pact between Briand (French minister and chairman of pan-European
movement) and Kellogg (American) to bind the world to choose peaceful solutions as an alternative to
warfare when conflicts emerge.
3
, French-German rapprochement
After 3 wars, Franco-Prussian War, WW I and WW II, the relationship between France and Germany was
extremely delicate. Which is why Christian Democrat politicians of both countries met on neutral territory in
Geneva.
- Konrad Adenauer: future Chancellor of Germany
o Founding father of the Federal Republic of Germany after WW II
- Various French Chistian Democrats
This led to the creation of the Nouvelles Équipes Internationales (1927) under the guidance of 80 delegated
from 12 countries.
It was fairly weak but formed a vital switch for the European integration process.
In these meetings, the French and German politicians gave hearing to the speech of Churchill in 1946.
- The British Prime Minister 1940-1945 and 1951-1955
- Supporter of close political and military transatlantic relations.
- Had quit some political authority because the UK was the only Western European country that was
not overrun by the Germans.
- He argues in favour of reconciliation between France and Germany to achieve a United States of
Europe.
Benelux as an example
Benelux (1944) = Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. An international organization regarding a
uniform payment system, increased economic activities and a unified tariff community.
- Benelux Treaty becomes effective in 1948: single customs union.
- Benelux Economic Union (1958): common trade policy with third countries, coordination of
economic, financial and social policy, and the free movement of goods, services, persons and capital.
It was inspired by the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU, 1921) = single currency and customs
union.
They tried to get France and Italy in, as the Fritalux, but this did not work.
The Benelux is made up of 4 relatively autonomous institutions: ministerial committee, general secretariat,
courthouse and parliament. This is seen as the embryo for the 4 institutions that would later be created in
the ECSC and eventually the EU.
Marshall Plan
The cooperation between European countries after WW II is not surprising: ruined economy and military. So,
Western Europe is vulnerable for Stalin’s Red Army.
The US withdrew their troops from liberated areas, but didn’t just want to hand them over, because American
banks had many outstanding loans to Western European governments and wanted to get repaid.
Out self-interest remained the US a key player in Europe (militarily via NATO and economically via
financial support packages).
George Marshall insisted on a relief package (1947) = European Recovery Program/ Marshall Plan.
- US offered a large-scale recovery programme for Western European countries + countries from
Central and Eastern Europe. But the latter had to refuse the offer because of the Soviet Union.
- Headquarters in Paris.
- Became a permanent establishment in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Co-
operation (OOEC).
- In 1961, the OOEC transformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD).
4
