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Key Concept 5.2. Imperialism and Nation-State Formation
I. Industrializing powers established transoceanic empires. Transoceanic empires, like the maritime empires
of the Early Modern Period are industrialized (core) nations that built empires overseas for resource extraction and
markets for goods.
Required examples of states with existing colonies:
• British in India – The British had been loosely in control of India since the late Early Modern Period. At the Battle
of Plessey in 1757 (part of the 7 Years War), the British were able to take control away from the French. However,
this was a loose control in which the British East India Company (the joint-stock company) had extensive trade
agreements with Indian rulers. The Sepoy Rebellion/Mutiny of 1857 is what really strengthened British control
over India. A Sepoy was an Indian soldier serving in the British army. The Sepoys were made up of the various
religious and ethnic groups of India, some Muslim, some Hindu and so on. In order for soldiers to load their
weapons at that point in time, they had to bite into an ammo cartridge that was made out of animal fat (it was
grease that was commonly used as a sealant). Well, Muslims do not eat pork and Hindus do not eat beef, and they
saw the British use of animal fat as a lack of cultural sensitivity on the part of the British. Eventually, this lack of
sensitivity was also seen as cause to rise up against the British. Ultimately, the rebellion failed and the British
government took direct control over India (as opposed to the British East India Company) in order to hold the
colony more securely and established the British Raj, in which local rulers in India answered directly to British
advisors and the Crown of England rather than make agreements with the British East India Company.
• Dutch in Indonesia – The Dutch had loosely controlled the Indonesian islands (known as the East Indies) since the
Early Modern Period. As industrial competition increased, Dutch officials tightened their control and extended
their authority throughout the Dutch East Indies. Along with cash crops of sugar, tea, coffee and tobacco, exports
of rubber and tin made the Dutch East Indies a valuable colony.
B. European states, as well as the Americans and the Japanese, established empires throughout Asia and the
Pacific, while Spanish and Portuguese influence declined.
Required examples of European states that established empires:
• British – parts of Africa, India, spheres of influence in China, and later (after WWI) mandates in the Middle East
• Dutch – increased control over Indonesia. Maintained some trade ports throughout Indian Ocean
• French – parts of Africa, India (eventually lost to the British), spheres of influence in China, and later (after WWI)
mandates in Middle East
• German – very late to imperialism, but gained areas in Africa, Southeast Asia and spheres of influence in China
• Russian – spheres of influence in China, sold Alaska to United States
• Japan – spheres of influence in China, Korea – defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905
• United States – moved west across continent; Took islands in Pacific (Hawaii, Philippines) Alaska
• Spain – Latin American colonies (lost most by 1820s); Philippines (lost to US in Spanish American War)
• Portugal –Brazil (lost as part of Atlantic Revolutions, although “peacefully); port cities in the Indian Ocean
(eventually lost to more industrialized/powerful European nations)
C. Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to establish empires in Africa. The most significant
event in the colonization of Africa was the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. As competition for colonization in Africa heated
up, European powers used diplomacy to settle the border disputes in Africa. In order to control a territory, according to the
conference, the Europeans had to have treaties with the local leaders, fly their flag there and govern the territory with a
police force. This set off what is known as “The Scramble for Africa” and the British and the French were the largest
stakeholders in Africa, but Belgium received the huge colony of the Congo, and the Germans, Spanish, Portuguese, and
Italians also acquired some territory.
Required examples of European States that established empires in Africa:
• Britain in West Africa – Britain established numerous colonies in Africa, but their most lucrative were the Gold
Coast (Ghana) and Nigeria. The British were primarily concerned with resource extraction, but also made some
modernization efforts within their colonies. Educational reforms, infrastructure projects, and major mining operations
were put in place by the British. These efforts to introduce modernization/reforms led to the extensive spread of
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Christianity, the English language, and European culture in West
Africa.
• Belgium in the Congo – Congo, the large tropical region in Central
Africa, was directly controlled by the King of Belgium, King Leopold
II. This colony produced significant amounts of rubber for European
markets. However, the atrocities carried out by the Belgian authorities
on the native populations of the Congo were horrendous. Workers
were expected to fulfill rubber quotes, and if they did not, the
authorities would amputate hands and limbs of the workers’ wives and
children. Additionally, horrid conditions led to extensive spread of
European disease among the local Congolese.
D. In some parts of their empires, Europeans established settler
colonies. Settler colonies are designed to function as other colonies
(resource extraction) however, they differ from other colonies because
they also had a significant number of migrants move to that colony from
the mother country. During this period, there were large numbers of
British people who moved to southern Africa (South Africa), Australia,
and New Zealand; and there were large numbers of French people that moved to Algeria. Settler colonies are important
because they created major demographic, economic and political problems in the 20th century during the decolonization
process post-WWII. The Europeans that moved into these colonies were often quite wealthy and acquired political and
economic power within the colonial society, and as independence/decolonization emerged in the post-WWII period, the
inequality between the natives of the colony and the natives of the original mother country made stability difficult.
Required examples of Europeans who established settler colonies:
• The British in southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand – Many British migrated to these regions for the
main “pull” reasons, such as economic opportunity. Australia was initially set up as a penal colony for petty
criminals and debtors (to relieve British population pressures) bringing large numbers of British migrants to
Australia, but the discovery of gold in the 19th century really fueled large scale migration of white settlers. The
chart below is a 1904 census of South Africa with the demographic breakdown:
Colony Cape Colony Natal Transvaal Orange River Total Percent
Black 1. 4 million 900,000 900,000 225,000 3.4 million 67.5%
White 500,000 97,000 300,000 142,000 1.1 million 21.6%
Coloured 400,000 6,000 24,000 19,000 450,000 8.6%
Asiatic 10,000 100,000 11,000 250 122,000 2.4%
Total 2.4 million 1.1 million 1.2 million 387,000 5.1 million 100%
% of S Africa 46.6% 21.4% 24.5% 7.5% 100%
• The French in Algeria – European population pressures in France, and the ensuing colonization of Algeria by
France, led to mass numbers of people immigrating into Algeria. France asserted direct control over Algeria for
over 100 years and decolonization in Algeria would be one of the most violent and bloody.
E. In other parts of the world, industrialized states practiced economic imperialism. Economic imperialism is a
different form of imperialism. Colonization implies political and economic control. Economic imperialism is was
economic exploitation, without direct political control, of a peripheral. Unequal treaties, multinational corporations and
investment in foreign countries facilitated one nation’s economic imperialism of another nation. Countries under
economic imperialism are still part of the periphery model, even though they were not necessarily formal (politically
Key Concept 5.2. Imperialism and Nation-State Formation
I. Industrializing powers established transoceanic empires. Transoceanic empires, like the maritime empires
of the Early Modern Period are industrialized (core) nations that built empires overseas for resource extraction and
markets for goods.
Required examples of states with existing colonies:
• British in India – The British had been loosely in control of India since the late Early Modern Period. At the Battle
of Plessey in 1757 (part of the 7 Years War), the British were able to take control away from the French. However,
this was a loose control in which the British East India Company (the joint-stock company) had extensive trade
agreements with Indian rulers. The Sepoy Rebellion/Mutiny of 1857 is what really strengthened British control
over India. A Sepoy was an Indian soldier serving in the British army. The Sepoys were made up of the various
religious and ethnic groups of India, some Muslim, some Hindu and so on. In order for soldiers to load their
weapons at that point in time, they had to bite into an ammo cartridge that was made out of animal fat (it was
grease that was commonly used as a sealant). Well, Muslims do not eat pork and Hindus do not eat beef, and they
saw the British use of animal fat as a lack of cultural sensitivity on the part of the British. Eventually, this lack of
sensitivity was also seen as cause to rise up against the British. Ultimately, the rebellion failed and the British
government took direct control over India (as opposed to the British East India Company) in order to hold the
colony more securely and established the British Raj, in which local rulers in India answered directly to British
advisors and the Crown of England rather than make agreements with the British East India Company.
• Dutch in Indonesia – The Dutch had loosely controlled the Indonesian islands (known as the East Indies) since the
Early Modern Period. As industrial competition increased, Dutch officials tightened their control and extended
their authority throughout the Dutch East Indies. Along with cash crops of sugar, tea, coffee and tobacco, exports
of rubber and tin made the Dutch East Indies a valuable colony.
B. European states, as well as the Americans and the Japanese, established empires throughout Asia and the
Pacific, while Spanish and Portuguese influence declined.
Required examples of European states that established empires:
• British – parts of Africa, India, spheres of influence in China, and later (after WWI) mandates in the Middle East
• Dutch – increased control over Indonesia. Maintained some trade ports throughout Indian Ocean
• French – parts of Africa, India (eventually lost to the British), spheres of influence in China, and later (after WWI)
mandates in Middle East
• German – very late to imperialism, but gained areas in Africa, Southeast Asia and spheres of influence in China
• Russian – spheres of influence in China, sold Alaska to United States
• Japan – spheres of influence in China, Korea – defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905
• United States – moved west across continent; Took islands in Pacific (Hawaii, Philippines) Alaska
• Spain – Latin American colonies (lost most by 1820s); Philippines (lost to US in Spanish American War)
• Portugal –Brazil (lost as part of Atlantic Revolutions, although “peacefully); port cities in the Indian Ocean
(eventually lost to more industrialized/powerful European nations)
C. Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to establish empires in Africa. The most significant
event in the colonization of Africa was the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. As competition for colonization in Africa heated
up, European powers used diplomacy to settle the border disputes in Africa. In order to control a territory, according to the
conference, the Europeans had to have treaties with the local leaders, fly their flag there and govern the territory with a
police force. This set off what is known as “The Scramble for Africa” and the British and the French were the largest
stakeholders in Africa, but Belgium received the huge colony of the Congo, and the Germans, Spanish, Portuguese, and
Italians also acquired some territory.
Required examples of European States that established empires in Africa:
• Britain in West Africa – Britain established numerous colonies in Africa, but their most lucrative were the Gold
Coast (Ghana) and Nigeria. The British were primarily concerned with resource extraction, but also made some
modernization efforts within their colonies. Educational reforms, infrastructure projects, and major mining operations
were put in place by the British. These efforts to introduce modernization/reforms led to the extensive spread of
, 2
Christianity, the English language, and European culture in West
Africa.
• Belgium in the Congo – Congo, the large tropical region in Central
Africa, was directly controlled by the King of Belgium, King Leopold
II. This colony produced significant amounts of rubber for European
markets. However, the atrocities carried out by the Belgian authorities
on the native populations of the Congo were horrendous. Workers
were expected to fulfill rubber quotes, and if they did not, the
authorities would amputate hands and limbs of the workers’ wives and
children. Additionally, horrid conditions led to extensive spread of
European disease among the local Congolese.
D. In some parts of their empires, Europeans established settler
colonies. Settler colonies are designed to function as other colonies
(resource extraction) however, they differ from other colonies because
they also had a significant number of migrants move to that colony from
the mother country. During this period, there were large numbers of
British people who moved to southern Africa (South Africa), Australia,
and New Zealand; and there were large numbers of French people that moved to Algeria. Settler colonies are important
because they created major demographic, economic and political problems in the 20th century during the decolonization
process post-WWII. The Europeans that moved into these colonies were often quite wealthy and acquired political and
economic power within the colonial society, and as independence/decolonization emerged in the post-WWII period, the
inequality between the natives of the colony and the natives of the original mother country made stability difficult.
Required examples of Europeans who established settler colonies:
• The British in southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand – Many British migrated to these regions for the
main “pull” reasons, such as economic opportunity. Australia was initially set up as a penal colony for petty
criminals and debtors (to relieve British population pressures) bringing large numbers of British migrants to
Australia, but the discovery of gold in the 19th century really fueled large scale migration of white settlers. The
chart below is a 1904 census of South Africa with the demographic breakdown:
Colony Cape Colony Natal Transvaal Orange River Total Percent
Black 1. 4 million 900,000 900,000 225,000 3.4 million 67.5%
White 500,000 97,000 300,000 142,000 1.1 million 21.6%
Coloured 400,000 6,000 24,000 19,000 450,000 8.6%
Asiatic 10,000 100,000 11,000 250 122,000 2.4%
Total 2.4 million 1.1 million 1.2 million 387,000 5.1 million 100%
% of S Africa 46.6% 21.4% 24.5% 7.5% 100%
• The French in Algeria – European population pressures in France, and the ensuing colonization of Algeria by
France, led to mass numbers of people immigrating into Algeria. France asserted direct control over Algeria for
over 100 years and decolonization in Algeria would be one of the most violent and bloody.
E. In other parts of the world, industrialized states practiced economic imperialism. Economic imperialism is a
different form of imperialism. Colonization implies political and economic control. Economic imperialism is was
economic exploitation, without direct political control, of a peripheral. Unequal treaties, multinational corporations and
investment in foreign countries facilitated one nation’s economic imperialism of another nation. Countries under
economic imperialism are still part of the periphery model, even though they were not necessarily formal (politically
