Chapter 1
Origins and Causes of Psychopathology
Outcomes Description
LO1: Discuss 1. Biomedical Perspective
the various Claims that all mental illness has a biological cause
perspectives Does not account for additional factors such as environment,
of social pressures, parenting types
psychopatholo Biological abnormalities occur in four areas:
gy A. Genetic Predisposition
these are inherited from our parents
most of us have 46 chromosomes
abnormalities in genetic make-up can predispose some
individuals to specific mental illnesses
plays a role in the development of mental illness such as
schizophrenia, mood disorders and alcoholism
B. Abnormal Functioning of Neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters are chemical substances in the brain that are
responsible for the communication of nerve impulses among
the brain cells
two types of neurotransmitters that are implicated in most
psychiatric disorders:
Monoamine neurotransmitters (adrenaline, noradrenaline,
dopamine and serotonin)
Amino acid neurotransmitters
Psychiatrists still use “chemical imbalance” to explain mental
illness to patients
e.g. dopamine is overactive in schizophrenic brains
C. Endocrine Dysregulation
Pathological alterations in the functioning of the neuro-
endocrine system
Disorders like mood disorders and schizophrenia
D. Structural Abnormalities
Structural abnormalities have traditionally been associated with
various disorders
Structural abnormalities in the brain can impair a person’s
emotional control
2. Psychological Perspective
A. Psychodynamic Approaches
Sigmund Freud
Mental structure are influenced by childhood experiences
Human actions and experiences are strongly influenced by
unconscious processes
Freud believed that although these feelings are supressed, they
could still exert control over an individual through symptoms
Personality is divided into three parts:
ID: our instincts and desires
EGO: tries to control expression of the ID
SUPEREGO: conscious ability to differentiate between
what is right and wrong
Psychopathology can occur for two reasons:
1. Psychological disorders emerge when conflict between the
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, ID, EGO and SUPEREGO cause distressing symptoms
2. Mental disorders emerge when deficiencies in the EGO
hinder an individuals ability to repress instincts and drives
Contemporary Psychodynamic thinking
Internal Objects: (Melanie Klein)
-mental representations that are formed when significant others are internalised by the
individual, which adds to the nature of the personality
-these theories believe that early relationships with caregivers can shape personality and
lays a foundation for future relationships
Theory of Attachment (John Bowlby)
- bonding between the child and caregiver has long term effects on relationships
-early trauma or deprivation is used to understand the development of psychopathology
B. Behavioural/Learning Perspectives
Psychologists: Pavlov/Skinner/Watson
Behaviour is learned through various processes:
1. Habituation:
The process by which a person ceases to respond to a
stimulus after repeated presentations
The person adapts (becomes numb) to the stimuli
E.g. Maladaptive stimuli: drugs
2. Sensitisation:
An extreme response to a stimulus that holds
significant consequences
Become sensitive to pain, sound, smell etc
3. Conditioning:
A. Classical Conditioning: (Pavlov’s dogs)
pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned
stimulus (food), eventually the neutral stimulus alone
will trigger the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus
B. Operant Conditioning:
an individual learns to achieve a specific goal
through reward (repeat behaviour) or punishment
(avoid behaviour)
4. Modelling:
learning takes place through observation or imitation alone
Process:
1. Attention: noticing something
2. Retention: remembering what was noticed
3. Reproduction: producing an action that is a
copy of what
was noticed
Dysfunctional behaviour results from learning ineffective
or dysfunctional responses or failing to learn adaptive
behaviour
C. Cognitive-Behavioural Perspective
Central to this perspective is the idea that mental disorders are
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, caused by aspects of the content of thoughts and information-
processing factors
Believes that irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts are
primarily responsible for the development of psychopathology
What we think and do impacts the way that we feel
D. Humanistic and Existential Perspectives
Known as the “third force” of psychology
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Humanistic Perspective (Rogers):
A person has free will and is able to choose how they
act in various contexts
Phenomenal field: each induvial lives in a world of
their own making
It is the perception of reality and not reality itself that
shapes life
Most important element: the sense of self which is
constantly forming and reforming
A fully functioning person has reached self-
actualisation, whereas psychopathology develops
when a person is blocked from achieving their full
potential
Existential Perspective:
Puts emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual,
the quest for values and meaning and the existences
of freedom for self-direction and fulfilment
It is less optimistic than the humanistic approach – it
puts emphasis on the alienating and dehumanising
nature of sociopolitical contexts
3. Social Perspectives
A. Community Psychology Perspective
Understanding people within their social worlds
It is a psychology that is “for the people”
FOCUS: is on preventing rather than treating dysfunction
Emphasis is placed on creating sensitivity to under-represented
groups
Factors included are socio-economic status, access to resources,
and the nature of the social interaction with the community
Looks at social, political and cultural contexts
E.g. a person presenting with schizophrenic symptoms may be
thought to be having an ancestral calling in some cultures
We can not truly explain a persons behaviour if we do not understand
their cultural background
B. Political Perspective
Frantz Fanon
Throughout history the field of psychology has been seen as
maintaining an oppressive system
Mental healing starts at liberation, but postcolonial dilemmas
complicate the process
Critical psychology has become very popular in SA as a way of
challenging dominant perspectives in psychology
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, C. Cultural and Cross-Cultural Perspective
Culture refers to the way that a lot of our behaviour is shared and
how behaviour is transmitted from one generation the next
Culture provides the context that all other variables operate within
Certain socio-cultural conditions may render some groups of
people more susceptible to psychopathology
The effects of culture can be seen to:
Pathogenic – directly cause mental disorders
Pathofacilitative – promote the incidence of certain
mental disorders
Pathoselective – influencing the reaction patterns
that result in mental disorders
Pathoplastic – shaping the symptoms of mental
disorders
Patho-elaborating – exaggerating behaviour
associated with mental disorders
Pathoreactive – influencing societies reaction to
mental disorders
Mental disorders that are largely caused by biological factors are
less likely to be influenced by cultural factors
- E.g. Schizophrenia does not have pathogenic effects of
culture, but it has pathofacilitative, pathoplastic and
pathoreactive
- In contrast personality disorders are an example where
culture exerts all six levels of influence (cultures often
define abnormalities in personality)
Cultural differences can become handicaps when the induvial
moves out of their culture and has to function within another
culture
The contribution of culture is being increasingly integrated into all
the fields of psychology
Due to mobility and social forces there are very few societies that
have not become culturally diverse
Skills and knowledge for multicultural assessment include:
Recognising cultural diversity
Understanding the role of culture, ethnicity and race in the
sociopolitical and economic development of diverse
populations
Understanding the impact of socio-economic and political
factors on the social, political and economic development of
groups
Helping clients to understand, maintain and resolve their
sociocultural identification
Understanding the impact of the interaction of culture,
gender and sexual orientation on behaviour and needs
In SA there is concern over the needs of culturally diverse societies
not being reached and that mental health services are still
Eurocentric
Cultural insensitivity can often lead to misdiagnoses
Ethnocentrism: judging other people from within ones own
cultural perspective (the problem arises when individuals view
their own culture as superior)
An example of ethnocentrism is the tendency in western medicine
to discredit traditional African healing (traditional healers are
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
Origins and Causes of Psychopathology
Outcomes Description
LO1: Discuss 1. Biomedical Perspective
the various Claims that all mental illness has a biological cause
perspectives Does not account for additional factors such as environment,
of social pressures, parenting types
psychopatholo Biological abnormalities occur in four areas:
gy A. Genetic Predisposition
these are inherited from our parents
most of us have 46 chromosomes
abnormalities in genetic make-up can predispose some
individuals to specific mental illnesses
plays a role in the development of mental illness such as
schizophrenia, mood disorders and alcoholism
B. Abnormal Functioning of Neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters are chemical substances in the brain that are
responsible for the communication of nerve impulses among
the brain cells
two types of neurotransmitters that are implicated in most
psychiatric disorders:
Monoamine neurotransmitters (adrenaline, noradrenaline,
dopamine and serotonin)
Amino acid neurotransmitters
Psychiatrists still use “chemical imbalance” to explain mental
illness to patients
e.g. dopamine is overactive in schizophrenic brains
C. Endocrine Dysregulation
Pathological alterations in the functioning of the neuro-
endocrine system
Disorders like mood disorders and schizophrenia
D. Structural Abnormalities
Structural abnormalities have traditionally been associated with
various disorders
Structural abnormalities in the brain can impair a person’s
emotional control
2. Psychological Perspective
A. Psychodynamic Approaches
Sigmund Freud
Mental structure are influenced by childhood experiences
Human actions and experiences are strongly influenced by
unconscious processes
Freud believed that although these feelings are supressed, they
could still exert control over an individual through symptoms
Personality is divided into three parts:
ID: our instincts and desires
EGO: tries to control expression of the ID
SUPEREGO: conscious ability to differentiate between
what is right and wrong
Psychopathology can occur for two reasons:
1. Psychological disorders emerge when conflict between the
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, ID, EGO and SUPEREGO cause distressing symptoms
2. Mental disorders emerge when deficiencies in the EGO
hinder an individuals ability to repress instincts and drives
Contemporary Psychodynamic thinking
Internal Objects: (Melanie Klein)
-mental representations that are formed when significant others are internalised by the
individual, which adds to the nature of the personality
-these theories believe that early relationships with caregivers can shape personality and
lays a foundation for future relationships
Theory of Attachment (John Bowlby)
- bonding between the child and caregiver has long term effects on relationships
-early trauma or deprivation is used to understand the development of psychopathology
B. Behavioural/Learning Perspectives
Psychologists: Pavlov/Skinner/Watson
Behaviour is learned through various processes:
1. Habituation:
The process by which a person ceases to respond to a
stimulus after repeated presentations
The person adapts (becomes numb) to the stimuli
E.g. Maladaptive stimuli: drugs
2. Sensitisation:
An extreme response to a stimulus that holds
significant consequences
Become sensitive to pain, sound, smell etc
3. Conditioning:
A. Classical Conditioning: (Pavlov’s dogs)
pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned
stimulus (food), eventually the neutral stimulus alone
will trigger the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus
B. Operant Conditioning:
an individual learns to achieve a specific goal
through reward (repeat behaviour) or punishment
(avoid behaviour)
4. Modelling:
learning takes place through observation or imitation alone
Process:
1. Attention: noticing something
2. Retention: remembering what was noticed
3. Reproduction: producing an action that is a
copy of what
was noticed
Dysfunctional behaviour results from learning ineffective
or dysfunctional responses or failing to learn adaptive
behaviour
C. Cognitive-Behavioural Perspective
Central to this perspective is the idea that mental disorders are
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, caused by aspects of the content of thoughts and information-
processing factors
Believes that irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts are
primarily responsible for the development of psychopathology
What we think and do impacts the way that we feel
D. Humanistic and Existential Perspectives
Known as the “third force” of psychology
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Humanistic Perspective (Rogers):
A person has free will and is able to choose how they
act in various contexts
Phenomenal field: each induvial lives in a world of
their own making
It is the perception of reality and not reality itself that
shapes life
Most important element: the sense of self which is
constantly forming and reforming
A fully functioning person has reached self-
actualisation, whereas psychopathology develops
when a person is blocked from achieving their full
potential
Existential Perspective:
Puts emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual,
the quest for values and meaning and the existences
of freedom for self-direction and fulfilment
It is less optimistic than the humanistic approach – it
puts emphasis on the alienating and dehumanising
nature of sociopolitical contexts
3. Social Perspectives
A. Community Psychology Perspective
Understanding people within their social worlds
It is a psychology that is “for the people”
FOCUS: is on preventing rather than treating dysfunction
Emphasis is placed on creating sensitivity to under-represented
groups
Factors included are socio-economic status, access to resources,
and the nature of the social interaction with the community
Looks at social, political and cultural contexts
E.g. a person presenting with schizophrenic symptoms may be
thought to be having an ancestral calling in some cultures
We can not truly explain a persons behaviour if we do not understand
their cultural background
B. Political Perspective
Frantz Fanon
Throughout history the field of psychology has been seen as
maintaining an oppressive system
Mental healing starts at liberation, but postcolonial dilemmas
complicate the process
Critical psychology has become very popular in SA as a way of
challenging dominant perspectives in psychology
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
, C. Cultural and Cross-Cultural Perspective
Culture refers to the way that a lot of our behaviour is shared and
how behaviour is transmitted from one generation the next
Culture provides the context that all other variables operate within
Certain socio-cultural conditions may render some groups of
people more susceptible to psychopathology
The effects of culture can be seen to:
Pathogenic – directly cause mental disorders
Pathofacilitative – promote the incidence of certain
mental disorders
Pathoselective – influencing the reaction patterns
that result in mental disorders
Pathoplastic – shaping the symptoms of mental
disorders
Patho-elaborating – exaggerating behaviour
associated with mental disorders
Pathoreactive – influencing societies reaction to
mental disorders
Mental disorders that are largely caused by biological factors are
less likely to be influenced by cultural factors
- E.g. Schizophrenia does not have pathogenic effects of
culture, but it has pathofacilitative, pathoplastic and
pathoreactive
- In contrast personality disorders are an example where
culture exerts all six levels of influence (cultures often
define abnormalities in personality)
Cultural differences can become handicaps when the induvial
moves out of their culture and has to function within another
culture
The contribution of culture is being increasingly integrated into all
the fields of psychology
Due to mobility and social forces there are very few societies that
have not become culturally diverse
Skills and knowledge for multicultural assessment include:
Recognising cultural diversity
Understanding the role of culture, ethnicity and race in the
sociopolitical and economic development of diverse
populations
Understanding the impact of socio-economic and political
factors on the social, political and economic development of
groups
Helping clients to understand, maintain and resolve their
sociocultural identification
Understanding the impact of the interaction of culture,
gender and sexual orientation on behaviour and needs
In SA there is concern over the needs of culturally diverse societies
not being reached and that mental health services are still
Eurocentric
Cultural insensitivity can often lead to misdiagnoses
Ethnocentrism: judging other people from within ones own
cultural perspective (the problem arises when individuals view
their own culture as superior)
An example of ethnocentrism is the tendency in western medicine
to discredit traditional African healing (traditional healers are
© 2024 Danielle van Rooijen
