CHAPTER TWO
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise
1) Measurement and description. develop measurement techniques that make it possible to
describe behavior clearly and precisely.
2) Understanding and prediction. To evaluate their understanding, scientists make and test
predictions called hypotheses.
3) Application and control. The information scientists gather will be of some practical value in
helping to solve everyday problems.
A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. theories permit
psychologists to make the leap from the description of behavior to the understanding of behavior. Guides
future research. Must be testable in order to put it to empirical test.
peer review and replication are the essential features of error control in science.
Replication Crisis - concern over the difficulty in replicating some important research findings. these
concerns led to calls for increased focus on cumulative findings
Steps in scientific Investigation: Formulate a hypothesis -> design the study -> collect the data(direct
observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination
of archival records) -> analyze the data -> report the findings
An operational definition describes the actions that will be used to measure or control a variable.
Operational definitions establish precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of a study.
Advantages of the Scientific Approach: The first is its clarity and precision, requires that people specify
exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses. Second, relative intolerance for
error. Scientists demand objective data and thorough documentation before they accept ideas.
Research methods consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and
control of variables in empirical studies. General strategies for conducting studies.
The experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under care- fully
controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. find out
how X affects Y.
▪ An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its
impact on another variable. The one that's manipulated.
▪ The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the
independent variable.
, ▪ The experimental group consists of the participants who receive some different treatment in
regard to the independent variable. The control group consists of similar participants who do not
receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
▪ Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to
influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
▪ A confounding of variables occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult
to sort out their specific effects.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research
permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Researchers are able to
draw these conclusions about causation because the precise control available in the experiment allows
them to isolate the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, while
neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables.
One problem is that experiments are often artificial. Because experiments require great control over
proceedings, researchers must often construct simple, contrived situations to test their hypotheses
experimentally. When experiments are highly artificial, doubts arise about the applicability of findings to
everyday behavior outside the experimental laboratory. Can fix this by using field experiments, use
settings that are very much like real life. can’t be used to explore some research questions.
Psychologists are frequently interested in the effects of factors that cannot be manipulated as
independent variables because of ethical concerns or practical realities.
Descriptive/Correlational Research
What distinguishes these methods is that the researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study.
This lack of control means that these methods cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe
patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables.
Naturalistic Observation: a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening
directly with the participants. Allowed to unfold naturally without interference in its natural setting.
researchers have to make careful plans to ensure systematic, consistent observations. Allows to study
behavior in conditions that are less artificial. engaging in this can be a good starting point when little is
known about the behavior under study. Reactivity occurs when a participant’s behavior is altered by the
presence of the observer.
Case Study: A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of
participants. Highly subjective, bad, provide compelling real life illustrations that bolster a hypothesis or
theory.
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise
1) Measurement and description. develop measurement techniques that make it possible to
describe behavior clearly and precisely.
2) Understanding and prediction. To evaluate their understanding, scientists make and test
predictions called hypotheses.
3) Application and control. The information scientists gather will be of some practical value in
helping to solve everyday problems.
A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. theories permit
psychologists to make the leap from the description of behavior to the understanding of behavior. Guides
future research. Must be testable in order to put it to empirical test.
peer review and replication are the essential features of error control in science.
Replication Crisis - concern over the difficulty in replicating some important research findings. these
concerns led to calls for increased focus on cumulative findings
Steps in scientific Investigation: Formulate a hypothesis -> design the study -> collect the data(direct
observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination
of archival records) -> analyze the data -> report the findings
An operational definition describes the actions that will be used to measure or control a variable.
Operational definitions establish precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of a study.
Advantages of the Scientific Approach: The first is its clarity and precision, requires that people specify
exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses. Second, relative intolerance for
error. Scientists demand objective data and thorough documentation before they accept ideas.
Research methods consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and
control of variables in empirical studies. General strategies for conducting studies.
The experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under care- fully
controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. find out
how X affects Y.
▪ An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its
impact on another variable. The one that's manipulated.
▪ The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the
independent variable.
, ▪ The experimental group consists of the participants who receive some different treatment in
regard to the independent variable. The control group consists of similar participants who do not
receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
▪ Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to
influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
▪ A confounding of variables occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult
to sort out their specific effects.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research
permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Researchers are able to
draw these conclusions about causation because the precise control available in the experiment allows
them to isolate the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, while
neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables.
One problem is that experiments are often artificial. Because experiments require great control over
proceedings, researchers must often construct simple, contrived situations to test their hypotheses
experimentally. When experiments are highly artificial, doubts arise about the applicability of findings to
everyday behavior outside the experimental laboratory. Can fix this by using field experiments, use
settings that are very much like real life. can’t be used to explore some research questions.
Psychologists are frequently interested in the effects of factors that cannot be manipulated as
independent variables because of ethical concerns or practical realities.
Descriptive/Correlational Research
What distinguishes these methods is that the researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study.
This lack of control means that these methods cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe
patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables.
Naturalistic Observation: a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening
directly with the participants. Allowed to unfold naturally without interference in its natural setting.
researchers have to make careful plans to ensure systematic, consistent observations. Allows to study
behavior in conditions that are less artificial. engaging in this can be a good starting point when little is
known about the behavior under study. Reactivity occurs when a participant’s behavior is altered by the
presence of the observer.
Case Study: A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of
participants. Highly subjective, bad, provide compelling real life illustrations that bolster a hypothesis or
theory.
