Praxis II Family and Consumer Sciences (5122) Exam Study Guide Review

Individuation is the process through which a person comes to think of himself or herself as a distinct person despite being a member of a family. - Children at first identify entirely with the mores, norms, and values of their family; it is only after prolonged exposure to other people outside the home that a child will begin to question his or her upbringing and perhaps modify his or her belief system. A fully individualized person is able to maintain a coherent personality without renouncing membership in a family with which he or she may have some disagreement. Agrarian societies are more likely to live with their extended families. - An extended family is comprised of more than one adult couple. For instance, it might include a man and a woman, their children, and their grandchildren. Agrarian societies in which people tend the same land for their entire lives are more conducive to the maintenance of the extended family. This is in part because it is more difficult for a large group to move around together. In modern, industrial, urban, and nomadic societies, it is more common for people to be grouped together in nuclear families (one adult couple and their children) Financial Stability is NOT necessary for a person to commit emotionally to a marriage. - Despite money being a main issue for divorce, it is more important for partners to have good self-esteem, empathy, a feeling of permanence in the relationship, and strong personal identities. Solid marriages weather the inevitable hard times with a mixture of humor, empathy, and habit. The idea of empathy is particularly important in marriage because it implies that each partner may not fully understand the other. Nevertheless, a loving spouse with try to help whenever possible. Having a child between the ages of 2 and 4 has little to no effect on job satisfaction. - Research suggests that parents often feel some strain as they occupy multiple roles, but this is offset by the enjoyment they derive from their work. Having a newborn, on the other hand, has a noticeably damaging effect on job satisfaction. The demands of caring for a newborn, as well as the desire to spend as much time as possible with this new child, make it unpleasant to be away from home for any reason. Flexible scheduling, high wages, and intellectual challenge are all directly correlated with job satisfaction. Accepting that the marriage is over is the first step a person should take after divorce. - Psychologists estimate that it takes most people at least two years to accept divorce entirely. Until this is reached, the divorcee should not initiate a new relationship. The best way to complete the process of acceptance is to establish an individual identity. This may include developing a balance between being single and being a parent. It is appropriate to plan for the future, but people should be aware that it is impossible to predict what they will want once they have fully processed the finality of the divorce. Sibling rivalry is most pronounced in same-sex siblings within three years of age. - In the first eight to ten years of life, siblings tend to alternate between cooperation and competition. As they grow older, they will often spend little time together for a few years, but during adolescence will gradually develop empathy for one another. Most research suggests that adult relationships between siblings simply exaggerate the tone of the relationship of the youth; that is, good relationships get better and bad relationships get worse. Married women typically earn a lower wage than single women. - This is an exception to the general trend, which is that married people are healthier, wealthier, and more content than their single counterparts. Married men are less likely to abuse alcohol and drugs, and less likely to become depressed. Married women are healthier and more likely to report satisfaction with their home lives. One reason why married women may earn less money is that they are more likely to be raising children, and therefore less focused on professional development. Despite reports about the decline of marriage, an overwhelming majority of Americans will marry at least once during their lives. Accepting a stepparent is hardest for adolescent girls. - The bond between a stepparent, particularly a stepfather, and an adolescent girl takes the longest to form. One possible reason for this phenomenon is that stepfathers tend to be less engaged with stepdaughters than with stepsons. The effect of remarriage on children is much the same as divorce because it involves a fundamental restructuring of the family concept. Nevertheless, stepparents who work to engage with their stepchildren can develop positive relationships over time. Both the content and the style of family communication are important. - The members of a family should work on communicating positively. The decisions made by families tend to reinforce the status quo in the interest of conformity and conflict avoidance. For reasons both genetic and environmental, the members of families are likely to struggle with the same sorts of problems in life. Despite a general tendency toward stability and consistency, families inevitably change in response to the aging of each member and to pressures from the environment. Finally, it is a central tenet of family science that it is impossible to understand a family member without understanding the family as a whole. According to John Gottman, humor is the best response to criticism by a spouse. - When the criticized partner responds to criticism by deflecting or soothing the other person, tempers are quelled and the partnership remains strong. Gottman's research suggests that there is a classic pattern of degenerating communication in an unsuccessful relationship. The pattern begins with criticism that is not directed at a certain behavior, but at the other person as a whole. In other words, the criticism of unsuccessful couples tends to lean toward character assassination. Eventually, these negative interactions lead to contempt, in which one partner openly disparages and disrespects the other. The inevitable response to contempt is defensiveness, followed by stonewalling or a total lack of communication. When couples stop communicating, the relationship is not likely to endure. The greatest amount of variation between people of the same age is found during early adolescence. - The onset of puberty may occur at any time over the span of five years, though it typically occurs earlier in females than in males. The changes brought on by puberty are monumental and can cause rapid changes in personality, physical development, and emotional maturity. Teachers need to be aware of these changes, particularly when working with middle-school children. Family and consumer science teachers may need to act as liaisons between parents and their children, as family relationships can become strained during early adolescence. When two children have a dispute and agree to settle it according to their mother's opinion, they are engaging in arbitration. - In arbitration, two conflicting parties agree to rely on the advice of a supposedly impartial third party. Sometimes, the parties will also establish guidelines for the way a decision is to be reached. In parenting, it can be difficult to settle a dispute with arbitration, since children are unlikely to honor a decision that goes against their interest. Conciliation is a method of settling disputes in which the conflicting parties are simply asked to meet and converse, with the idea that a resolution will naturally occur as a result of this meeting. In mediation, the conflicting parties decide to enlist the aid of an impartial third party as they attempt to settle their differences. The parties in mediation do not agree to follow the advice of the third party. In negotiation, two parties try to agree on terms that are acceptable to both. Negotiation in family life is a bit like compromise. A restorative justice syste In general, when a mother works, her children have more self-esteem. - There is no one reason for this phenomenon, although one can speculate that girls might be inspired by the positive example of a successful working mother. The daughters of working mothers tend to be more independent, and they are likely to have a more egalitarian view of gender relations. When the sons of working mothers are unsupervised, their performance in school tends to decline. It is important for both parents to have a positive attitude about maternal employment, and it is especially important for husbands to support their wives in ways that can be perceived positively by children. During times of conflict, family members will take sides to consolidate power. - Although this process is natural, it can become problematic if the groups last for too long or create a permanent imbalance of power. The idea that family life is a series of actions and reactions is an assumption of Milan systematic family therapy. This approach to family therapy emphasizes patterns of behavior that lock family members into their roles, therefore inhibiting their personal growth. Behavioral family therapists assume that bad behavior persists when it is reinforced. These therapists strive to show family members how they may be inadvertently rewarding the very behavior they seek to discourage. Object relations family therapists assume that ill will in a family is often a result of negative projection. In other words, the members of a family may attribute their own negative characteristics to their family members. One drawback of inpatient treatment for alcoholism is that it is expensive. - Inpatient programs are not often covered by health insurance, forcing the family to pay out of pocket. The efficacy of these programs is well established, estimating 70% of participants to stay sober for at least five years. Many of these programs include the Alcoholics Anonymous 12-step model. Patients cannot drink while enrolled since they are on the property. The inpatient programs require the personal commitment of the patient. According to Piaget's model, the ability to imagine the mental lives of others emerges during the preoperational stage. - The preoperational stage is the second of the four stages and occurs between 2 and 7 years old. This ability is called sympathy. The first stage in the Piaget model is sensorimotor, which lasts from birth until about age 2. During this time, the sense organs become activated, and the child learns about object permanence. In the third stage, known as concrete operational, the child improves his or her cognition and realizes that objects with different shapes may have the same volume. This stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 12. In the formal operational stage, the capacity for abstract thought is developed. When this stage occurs (and it does not for every person), it typically occurs after age 12. Role strain is exemplified by a new teacher who struggles to maintain authority in the classroom. - Role strain is any hardship a person encounters while trying to fulfill the socially accepted requirements of a role. Individuals are almost never a perfect fit for any role they attempt to inhabit, so role strain is inevitable. A public speaker who cultivates his or her expertise is displaying role performance, or the conscious fulfillment of a social role's characteristics. A person whose parents die goes through the role exit process, because he or she no longer is in the role of a son or daughter. A child who imagines what it would be like to be a police office is demonstration role taking, in which a person imagines what it would be like to fill a certain social role. A substitute teacher who waits tables on the weekend exemplifies the idea of the role set, or the different roles that a single person can inhabit at a given point in his or her life. An eight year-old with the mental age of a ten year-old is likely to have an IQ of 125. - IQ is measured by dividing mental age by actual age and then multiplying by 100. Mental age is defined as the average amount of knowledge held by a person at a given age. IQ is seen as an arbitrary figure and somewhat unreliable as an indicator of intellectual development. Many critics feel that it ignores intuitive, spatial, and creative abilities. The average IQ should be 100. A student whose interest level and performance have steadily declined admits to his teacher that he is depressed, but is not yet willing to do anything to remedy this problem. He is in the contemplation stage of the transtheoretical model of change. - In this stage, a person recognizes the need for a change but is not yet prepared to take action. This is the second of six stages. IN the first stage, precontemplation, the person does not yet recognize that he or she has a problem. In the third stage, preparation/commitment, the persona determines that a change is necessary and begins to collect information about solutions. The fourth stage is action, when the person begins to change his or her behavior. In the fifth stage, maintenance, the person notes the benefits of the new behavior and strives to avoid falling back into bad habits. IN the sixth and final stage, termination, the person has made the new behavior habitual and is very unlikely to backslide. Starting at about nine months, an infant will begin nonsensically imitating adult speech, or echolalia. - Most children begin exhibiting echolalia at about nine months of age. This is one of the steps in language acquisition. There are six such stages: crying, cooing, babbling, echolalia, holophrastic speech, and telegraphic speech. Over the first few months of life, an infant will develop different cries to express different emotions. After six or eight weeks, the infant will begin to display a vowel-intensive warbling sound, known as cooing. Babies between four and six months old typically begin to make a babbling noise, which over time will come to resemble the baby's native language. Echolalia is the next step, followed by holophrastic speech, in which the baby uses single words to communicate more complex ides. Finally, between eighteen and twenty-four months, the child will initiate telegraphic speech, combinations of words that make sense together. Deep structuring is not one of the steps of language acquisition. The major criticism of Levinson's "seasons" of life model is that it overstates the importance of the mid-life crisis. - Levinson outlined four major periods of life: infancy to adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. The major crisis of life according to Levinson was the realization during middle adulthood that the dreams established in early adulthood are not entirely attainable. This brings on the mid-life crisis. Subsequent psychology has indicated that this crisis does not occur for all people and is often not every severe when it does occur. However, Levinson's model does acknowledge the suffering of life and does address the last years of life, in which a person confronts and reconciles with mortality. Levinson also asserts that life transitions are made consciously and with a great deal of stress. Finally, Levinson emphasizes the role of parents in shaping the early years and thus the foundation of a person's personality development. Sudden interest in a new hobby is NOT a warning sign of teen depression. - Teenagers at risk of depression tend to withdraw and will not be likely to take on a new hobby. Instead, depressed teens lose interest in activities that previously engaged and pleased them. Depression is also thought to be hereditary, so teenagers with a family history of the illness should be especially alert to these signs. An example of horizontal socialization is where students who excel in math receive different treatment than students who excel in English. - Horizontal socialization is a fundamental difference in the treatment of people who inhabit different roles. Doctors and teachers, for instance, are treated differently by society, even though one profession is not necessarily prized more than the other. Vertical socialization, on the other hand, is the different treatment individuals receive when they occupy different class positions. Wealthy people, for example, are socialized differently than poor people. Resocialization is the intentional adjustment of a person's socialization, typically in the hope that the person will become better integrated into society. People who are released form prison, for instance, must be resocialized into society. Anticipatory socialization occurs when a person expects to enter a new role in the future and adjusts his or her behavior accordingly. At the end of summer vacation, for example, students might start to adjust their clothing Thrift is NOT an area of emotional intelligence. - There are five areas of emotional intelligence: self-awareness, empathy, personal motivation, altruism, and the ability to love and be loved. These areas were outlined by the psychologist Daniel Goleman, who was one of the first experts to suggest that IQ is an insufficient measure of a person. The development of emotional intelligence is also important. It is possible to improve emotional intelligence by cultivating self-expression and learning to listen to one's conscience. The United States has a higher rate of teen pregnancies than most other developing countries. - However, this rate has decreased over the past 20 years, due to effective instruction and the distribution of birth control. Nevertheless, the rate of teen pregnancy remains too high, especially among Hispanics and African-Americans. Because teen pregnancy has such a damaging effect on success in life, family and consumer science teachers are encouraged to treat this subject in their discussion of family life. The Center for Disease Control offers a number of resources related to teen pregnancy. An effective time management plan encourages students to do their most difficult tasks first. - There is no way to eliminate every possible distraction. Instead, an effective time management plan should try to mitigate the damage of inevitable distractions. It is not necessary for a time management plan to be so comprehensive as to include meals, though some students may find it useful to do so. Making lists is the cornerstone of time management, since lists help students to prioritize their tasks and keep from feeling overwhelmed by the many things they have to do . Finally, because a time management plan will be tailored to the life of the individual, it will be different for each student. Creating a list of things to do is less necessary when a daily routine has been established. - A daily routine makes certain tasks habitual, which can eventually eliminate the need for the list. For instance, a parent might get up every morning and go through the same steps to get his children ready for school. Since this set of tasks is performed habitually, it does not need to be written down. In addition, the development of a routine helps get the body and mind accustomed to performing certain tasks as certain times. Many people find that a routine makes it less difficult for them to find the motivation to perform unpleasant tasks. Telling, in Hersey and Blanchard's leadership styles, emphasizes the performance of tasks and ignores the development of positive relationships. - Hersey and Blanchard's model, known as situational leadership, describes four different leadership styles: telling, delegating, selling, and participating. These styles are distinguished by the degree to which they emphasize either tasks performance or relationship building. The delegating style entails little commitment to either function. A delegating leader passes off authority to his or her subordinates. A selling leader is heavily involved with both task performance and the building of relationships. Such a leader is constantly engaged with his or her subordinates, helping them do their jobs and keeping them motivated. While a telling leader is very involved in the performance of tasks, he or she is not every interested in building positive relationships with subordinates. Such a leader is likely to micromanage subordinates, often to their annoyance. A participating leader is not involved in tasks but is very in Discussion, then a final decision by the parents, is the best method for a family to decide on a vacation destination. - It is important for parents to give their children a sense of involvement in the process, though the parents should retain the ultimate decision. When parents make decisions without consulting their children, the children are less likely to be willing to participate fully. On the other hand, when children are included in making important decisions, they often are governed by emotion or whim rather than reason. The best decision-making system, then, is a combination of discussion and parental leadership. The best way to limit a child's television time is to set a timer and turn the television off when the alarm sounds. - It establishes ahead of time the amount of television that can be watched, so the child will not be surprised or feel that the discipline is arbitrary. Setting up a timer also creates an objective method of enforcement with which the child cannot argue or attempt to negotiate. In this, as in many cases, it is helpful to create firm, consistent rules that the child can understand. When boundaries are consistent, the child will quickly learn the futility of arguing and will more easily come to accept the limitations on his or her desire. Scaring the child or using other negative reinforcement is a less desirable solution. Merely suggesting that the child go outside is unlikely to be influential unless it is backed up by other methods. Group polarization is when a group will often make more extreme decisions than any one member would make independently. - Management experts believe that this is due to the desire for conformity and the subsequent reinforcement of whatever solutions are first suggested. Rather than critique another group member and create disharmony, participants will often go along and even amplify the first opinion given. Organizational conflict can actually be a healthy thing, since it indicates that views are being aired openly. Social facilitation is a phenomenon in which the presence of others encourages a person to work harder. Groupthink is similar to group polarization, except that it does not necessarily result in extreme decisions. Groupthink is the suppression of reason in the interest of maintaining group cohesion. Social loafing is a phenomenon in which people do not work as hard in a group, often because they feel their contributions will not be respected. The members of a family are more likely to be motivated when a goal is well defined. - If parents decide to save for a new car, their children will be more likely to accept material sacrifices once they know about the underlying goal of these sacrifices. People in general have a hard time accepting changes or commands when there is no communicated rationale. In addition, motivation toward a family goal tends to be higher when members volunteer their participation. A tangible reward that seems fair is another way motivation is increased. Also, the members of a family are better able to stay motivated when they can objectively evaluate their own performance and then use this evaluation to make corrections. Finally, motivation cannot remain high when some members of the family feel that they are working much harder than other members. A compressed workweek improves employee satisfaction. - The normal work week consists of 5 eight-hour days; a compressed schedule increases the amount of work time for each day but decreases the number of days. Typically, the total amount of time spent at work stays the same. For instance, a common compressed workweek consists of 4 ten-hour days. There is not any demonstrated correlation between a compressed workweek and employee performance. However, employees who have a long commute are generally very enthusiastic about such a plan, since it eliminates one commute to and from the office. This advantage would be irrelevant to employees who work from home. Keeping a log of how time is spent is the first step a person should take toward eliminating wasted time. - Time management experts agree that the first step in eliminating wasted time is to determine where it is being wasted. This is done by keeping an activity log for several days and then studying it to find where time is typically wasted. Once the time wasters have been identified, it will become easier to tighten up the daily schedule. A five year-old is probably too young to mop the kitchen floor. - Mopping requires a degree of upper-body strength that a child of this age is unlikely to possess. However, a five year-old should be able to complete all of the other tasks listed as answer choices. Moreover, children at this age are often very enthusiastic about helping with household chores, particularly if they are given a chance to work independently. At this age, children are interested in participating in adult activities whenever possible, and parents should take advantage of this interest. The proper decision-making process begins by defining the problem to be solved. - Only after the problem has been outlined in its entirety should possible solutions be considered. It is a good idea to write down these options. Whenever possible, the emphasis should be on long-term solutions rather than quick fixes. In some cases, it may be determined that there is not enough information to make an informed decision. If this is the case, either information should be collected or, if this is impossible, the decision maker should figure out a strategy for mitigating this problem. When making a schedule, children should be encouraged to include some free time and place the hardest tasks first. - One of the hallmarks of an effective schedule is specificity, so large categories like homework should be broken down into smaller tasks. At the least, the child should divide homework into subjects, and it may even be necessary to subdivide subjects into particular tasks. It is important, however, for a schedule to include some free time because interruptions and distractions are inevitable. If a schedule is too rigid, the student is likely to become discouraged when he or she s unable to meet it. Also, it is a good idea to place the hardest tasks first, since the student will have the highest energy and mental resources then. Drop-in child care is useful when a family's regular child care provider is unavailable. - Drop-in child care is a service offered by some daycares and other child care centers. When parents have a specific need for childcare, when their normal provider is closed, for instance, they can call the drop-in center and see if there is any room for their child. The parents will need to have registered with the drop-in center ahead of time. This arrangement helps child care facilities operate at maximum capacity and helps parents fill unexpected holes in their child care schedule. Drop-in child care can be expensive, however, and may not be a valid option for children with special needs. Whether a child is in school or not would have little bearing on the utility of drop-in child care. One disadvantage of dealing with consumer finance companies is that they tend to charge high interest rates. - Consumer finance companies lend money to private citizens who want to make a purchase. There are few lending restrictions related to the purpose of the loan. Because these loans are considered to be risky, consumer finance companies often charge exorbitant interest rates. In most cases, however, they will accept property as security. The high interest rates and predatory business practices associated with the consumer finance companies should dissuade consumers from dealing with them unless absolutely necessary. Before entering into an agreement with a consumer finance company, one should consider whether the planned purchase is absolutely necessary. Restaurants are the most common employer of high school students. - The presence of so many students in food service jobs can be useful to both the family and the consumer science teacher. These students will have direct experience with the cost of food, as well as with the nutritional choices available in a restaurant. It is an excellent idea to allow students to incorporate their work experience into classroom activities. Borrowers with a poor credit rating will not be eligible for a bank's prime rate. - The prime rate is the lowest rate of interest offered by a commercial bank or other lending institution. It is made available only to borrowers with pristine credit ratings, since these people and businesses are most likely to repay the loan according to the agreed-upon schedule. Savings deposits, demand deposits, and certificates of deposit are all investitures made by the consumer in a bank, and therefore do not depend on credit rating. A savings deposit can be withdrawn at any time, which a certificate of deposit must be kept in the bank for a prescribed length of time. A demand deposit is essentially the same thing as a checking account, because the funds within it can be withdrawn at any time and in any amount. Banks are required to have deposit insurance to guarantee that they will be able to return the funds invested by customers. Children in daycare are better at articulating their desires. - It is believed that this ability develops because the child is dealing with a caregiver who, unlike the child's parent, may not intuit demands. Research shows that children in daycare are more likely to be aggressive and disobedient,perhaps because they feel the need to advocate their own interests away from home. Doctors emphasize the importance of establishing the parent-child bond before starting daycare. Children in daycare make friends more easily, perhaps because they get more practice at interacting with others. The value of daycare is closely correlated with the quality of supervision. Right to affordability was NOT one of the consumer rights asserted by Presidents Kennedy and Nixon during the 1960's. - Businesses do not have any obligation to sell products at prices within reach of the average consumer. There were five essential consumer rights promulgated at that time: the right to a safe product; the right to redress the right to be heard; the right to be informed; and the right to choose. The government enforces laws that require businesses to sell safe products or to clearly warn consumers about products that are not always safe. The right to redress enables consumers to receive a refund or compensation of some kind when a product does them hard. Consumers have a right to speak and be acknowledged by businesses. Consumers also have a right to as much information about products as they desire. Finally, consumers have a right to choose among a variety of products; it is with this in mind that the government enforces laws against monopoly. According to personal finance experts, the maximum percentage of income a family should spend on housing is 25%. - Although some lenders are willing to give money to homebuyers who will spend up to 40% of their income on housing, this is considered a risky loan. Such a loan is especially risky when the borrower has other long term debt besides housing costs. As a consumer, it is wise to create a detailed budget before committing any funds to housing costs. DVD's are an example of a discretionary expense. - Discretionary costs are expenses made at the discretion of the consumer. Discretionary expenses are those over which a consumer has the most control. A comprehensive budget must include discretionary expenses as well as fixed and variable expenses. Fixed expenses, such as rent, are the same every month. Variable expenses, including groceries, school supplies, and heating oil, are always present but vary in amount over the course of a year. The typical interval for a personal budget is one month. - Expenses such as rent and bills tend to be due on a monthly basis, and a month is long enough that brief fluctuations in food costs will balance out. Of course, a person needs to be sensitive to the fact that some months will be more expensive than others. For instance, if a person lives in a cold climate, he or she is likely to spend more money on heating during the winter months. Those who get paid every week or every two weeks will need to make a simple calculation to determine their monthly earnings. Denise has a credit card with an APR of 4.5%. If she has an average balance of $2500 throughout the year, how much interest will accrue? $112.50 - APR stands for annual percentage rate; it is the amount of interest charged over the course of twelve months. To calculate the amount of interest accruing on Denis's account, multiply her average balance by the APR (making sure to convert 4.5% into the decimal 0.045). The product of this calculation is the amount of interest accrued on the account over the course of a year. It is NOT a good idea to visit less than three daycare providers before selecting one. - Each of these visits should be thorough and should include a full tour and an extensive conversation with the care providers. Beforehand, a parent or guardian should make a list of questions for the meeting. For instance, one should get a description of a typical day at the facility, as well as spend some time observing the childcare providers at work. Whenever possible, children should visit the daycare facility before starting to go there regularly. Toilet training is handled differently by different providers, so if this is an issue, parents should inquire about the institutional policy. Children should be allowed to bring a favorite toy, blanket, or stuffed animal to daycare. Parents or guardians, especially those for whom this is the first daycare experience, should visit at least three daycare facilities before making a decision. Finally, parents or guardians should try to discuss going to daycare with their ch