Diplomacy 2022-2023 Exam Questions Prof. Jan Melissen
Class 2: history of diplomacy
Raymond Cohen: Diplomacy Through the Ages:
- Compare diplomacy in two different diplomatic systems (Ancient Near Eastern,
Ancient Greece, Italian Renaissance):
Ancient Near Eastern: Had marriage alliances, a lingua franca, had a protocol,
exchanged formal letters, maintained a relationship with foreign kings based
on brotherhood, engaged in gift exchanged, the palace bureaucracy
preserved documents regarding diplomacy, engaged in secret diplomacy but
by the end did experiment with public diplomacy as well. Later diplomatic
envoys went from plain messengers to ambassador plenipotentiaries:
individuals who could negotiated and conclude agreements. The emissary
was also born: a person with refined diplomatic skill that would travel in an
envoy.
Ancient Greece: did not partake in gift exchanges, marriage alliances, or the
relationship of brotherhood among kings. They engaged in open diplomacy
not secret diplomacy and had no formal letters nor a bureaucracy that
preserved documents pertaining to diplomacy. They had local citizens
(proxenos) represent them for diplomatic missions but without
plenipotentiary (negotiating) powers. Did have a resident consul: a citizen of
the host state whose job was to look after visitors from the state he
represented. They also had multilateral diplomacy.
Imperial Rome: Housed foreign dignitaries who received Roman education
so that upon returning home, they were loyal friends, imbued with Roman
culture. Did pay attention to protocol but no lingua franca (relied on
interpreters). Turned diplomacy into an organized instrument of statecraft on
par with war.
Renaissance Italy: Diplomatic services were not just used by kings and poses
anymore but also cities, military orders, trading orgs and more. The papacy
was a diplomatic powerhouse that preserved the harmony of the Respublika
Christiana through mediation or arbitration. This time saw the consolidation
of two characteristics of European diplomacy: (1) resident ambassador
(envoy that stayed posted until replaced), leading to the development of a
diplomatic corps (collection of diplomats in a capital) and a (2) chancery or
foreign ministry by Cardinal Richelieu (formulates foreign policy to administer
permanent diplomatic network).
Geoffrey Wiseman: Diplomacy (only the sections on history of diplomacy)
- Diplomacy in the premodern world was experimental and innovative. It is a man-
made and complex institution. Compare the diplomatic practice of the past and give
examples of experimentation. What kind of diplomatic experimentation was going
on?
Pre-modern diplomacy: experimentation with public diplomacy, Ancient
Greeks used local citizens (proxenos) to represent them without
plenipotentiary (negotiating) powers. 15th century Italy saw the birth of
resident ambassador (envoy that stayed posted until replaced), leading to the
development of a diplomatic corps (collection of diplomats in a capital).
1
, Diplomacy 2022-2023 Exam Questions Prof. Jan Melissen
Modern diplomacy: emerged on the Italian Peninsula with the Treaties of
Westphalia because they formalized the principle of state sovereignty, which
many see as announcing the era of modern diplomacy. Chancery or foreign
ministry by Cardinal Richelieu: formulates foreign policy to administer
permanent diplomatic network. It formalized several key diplomatic norms
that became key features of modern diplomacy (need for unity of direction in
a country’s management of external relations, need for continuous
negotiations, the idea of the professional diplomat). 20th century: multilateral
diplomacy (relations between 3 or more states). Institutionalized multilateral
diplomacy: diplomats permanently accredited to an international organization
rather than to a country (due to LoN, later UN). Hybrid diplomatic culture UN
due to diversity of issues and actors leads to radicalization and socialization.
Radicalization manifested in economic and social development claims and
New International Economic Order demands. Socialization manifested in
acceptance of the idea that the UN now acted as the membership committee
for the international community (previously this was up to countries who
acted bilaterally). Female diplomats are also a new phenomenon.
Diplomacy in a post-Modern world: non-state actors emerge as diplomats,
Track II-diplomats (unofficial diplomats who independently seek to secure
interest when official diplomacy is ineffective or inappropriate). Goodwill-
ambassadors, celebrity-diplomats, and influential former leaders work to
raise consciousness of issues, lobbying those in a position to help and
pressuring those causing problems. Citizen-diplomats can advance local
interests, act as international civil society lobbyists, or subvert aspects of their
country’s foreign policy with which they disagree.
Catherine Fletcher: Diplomacy in Renaissance Rome: The Rise of the Resident Ambassador
- Italian renaissance is often seen as a turning point or as the birthplace of modern
diplomacy. Explain or discuss.
2
Class 2: history of diplomacy
Raymond Cohen: Diplomacy Through the Ages:
- Compare diplomacy in two different diplomatic systems (Ancient Near Eastern,
Ancient Greece, Italian Renaissance):
Ancient Near Eastern: Had marriage alliances, a lingua franca, had a protocol,
exchanged formal letters, maintained a relationship with foreign kings based
on brotherhood, engaged in gift exchanged, the palace bureaucracy
preserved documents regarding diplomacy, engaged in secret diplomacy but
by the end did experiment with public diplomacy as well. Later diplomatic
envoys went from plain messengers to ambassador plenipotentiaries:
individuals who could negotiated and conclude agreements. The emissary
was also born: a person with refined diplomatic skill that would travel in an
envoy.
Ancient Greece: did not partake in gift exchanges, marriage alliances, or the
relationship of brotherhood among kings. They engaged in open diplomacy
not secret diplomacy and had no formal letters nor a bureaucracy that
preserved documents pertaining to diplomacy. They had local citizens
(proxenos) represent them for diplomatic missions but without
plenipotentiary (negotiating) powers. Did have a resident consul: a citizen of
the host state whose job was to look after visitors from the state he
represented. They also had multilateral diplomacy.
Imperial Rome: Housed foreign dignitaries who received Roman education
so that upon returning home, they were loyal friends, imbued with Roman
culture. Did pay attention to protocol but no lingua franca (relied on
interpreters). Turned diplomacy into an organized instrument of statecraft on
par with war.
Renaissance Italy: Diplomatic services were not just used by kings and poses
anymore but also cities, military orders, trading orgs and more. The papacy
was a diplomatic powerhouse that preserved the harmony of the Respublika
Christiana through mediation or arbitration. This time saw the consolidation
of two characteristics of European diplomacy: (1) resident ambassador
(envoy that stayed posted until replaced), leading to the development of a
diplomatic corps (collection of diplomats in a capital) and a (2) chancery or
foreign ministry by Cardinal Richelieu (formulates foreign policy to administer
permanent diplomatic network).
Geoffrey Wiseman: Diplomacy (only the sections on history of diplomacy)
- Diplomacy in the premodern world was experimental and innovative. It is a man-
made and complex institution. Compare the diplomatic practice of the past and give
examples of experimentation. What kind of diplomatic experimentation was going
on?
Pre-modern diplomacy: experimentation with public diplomacy, Ancient
Greeks used local citizens (proxenos) to represent them without
plenipotentiary (negotiating) powers. 15th century Italy saw the birth of
resident ambassador (envoy that stayed posted until replaced), leading to the
development of a diplomatic corps (collection of diplomats in a capital).
1
, Diplomacy 2022-2023 Exam Questions Prof. Jan Melissen
Modern diplomacy: emerged on the Italian Peninsula with the Treaties of
Westphalia because they formalized the principle of state sovereignty, which
many see as announcing the era of modern diplomacy. Chancery or foreign
ministry by Cardinal Richelieu: formulates foreign policy to administer
permanent diplomatic network. It formalized several key diplomatic norms
that became key features of modern diplomacy (need for unity of direction in
a country’s management of external relations, need for continuous
negotiations, the idea of the professional diplomat). 20th century: multilateral
diplomacy (relations between 3 or more states). Institutionalized multilateral
diplomacy: diplomats permanently accredited to an international organization
rather than to a country (due to LoN, later UN). Hybrid diplomatic culture UN
due to diversity of issues and actors leads to radicalization and socialization.
Radicalization manifested in economic and social development claims and
New International Economic Order demands. Socialization manifested in
acceptance of the idea that the UN now acted as the membership committee
for the international community (previously this was up to countries who
acted bilaterally). Female diplomats are also a new phenomenon.
Diplomacy in a post-Modern world: non-state actors emerge as diplomats,
Track II-diplomats (unofficial diplomats who independently seek to secure
interest when official diplomacy is ineffective or inappropriate). Goodwill-
ambassadors, celebrity-diplomats, and influential former leaders work to
raise consciousness of issues, lobbying those in a position to help and
pressuring those causing problems. Citizen-diplomats can advance local
interests, act as international civil society lobbyists, or subvert aspects of their
country’s foreign policy with which they disagree.
Catherine Fletcher: Diplomacy in Renaissance Rome: The Rise of the Resident Ambassador
- Italian renaissance is often seen as a turning point or as the birthplace of modern
diplomacy. Explain or discuss.
2
