Summary Social Research Methods (Alan Bryman) for Methodology

Stage Description of stage
Literature review A critical examination of existing research relating to the
phenomena of interest and of relevant theoretical ideas.
Concepts and theories The ideas that drive the research process and that shed light
on the interpretation of the resulting findings. These findings
contribute to the ideas.
Research question(s) A question or questions providing (voorzien) an explicit
statement of what it is the researcher wants to know about.
Sampling cases The selection of cases (in these studies, people) that are
relevant to the research questions.
Data collection Gathering data from the sample so that the research
questions can be answered.
Data analysis The management, analysis, and interpretation of the data.
Writing up Dissemination (verspreiding) of the research and its findings.


Principles of positivms
1. Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be warranted as
knowledge (the principle of phenomenalism); Alleen verschijnselen en dus kennis die door de
zintuigen wordt bevestigd, kan echt gerechtvaardigd zijn als kennis;
2. The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses than can be tested an that will thereby allow
explanations of laws to be assessed (the principal of deductivism); Het doel van de theorie is om
hypothesen te genereren die getest kunnen worden en die daardoor toelaten dat verklaringen van
wetten worden beoordeeld;
3. Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis for laws (the principle of
inductivism); Kennis wordt verkregen door het verzamelen van feiten die de basis vormen voor wetten
4. Science must (and presumably can) be conducted in a way that is value free (objective); Wetenschap
moet (en vermoedelijk kan) op een manier worden uitgevoerd die waardevrij is (dwz, objectief);
5. There is a clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements and a belief that
the former are the true domain of the scientist. This last principle is implied by the first because the
truth or otherwise of normative statements cannot be confirmed by the senses.; Er is een duidelijk
onderscheid tussen wetenschappelijke uitspraken en normatieve uitspraken en een overtuiging dat de
eerste het ware domein van de wetenschapper zijn. Dit laatste principe wordt geïmpliceerd door het
1e omdat de waarheid of anderszins normatieve uitspraken niet door zintuigen kan worden bevestigd.

,Interpretivism: an epistemology that contrasts with positivism. Critical of the application of the
scientific model to the study of the social word. A view that the subject matter of the social sciences
(people and their institutions) and is different from the natural sciences. (Verstehen)

Phenomenology is a philosphy that is concerned with the question of how individuals make sense of
the world around them and bracket out (breken uit) preconceptions (vooroordelen) in her grasp
(greep) of that world.  past bij interpretivism (anti-positivism).

Epistemology reflects and capitalizes upon the difference between the subject matter of the natural
sciences and the social sciences. The epistemological clash as being between positivism and
hermeneutics (= interpretation of human action / best thought of an epistemological approach).

Symbolic interactionism: interaction takes place in such a way that the individual is continually
interpreting the symbolic meaning of his environment and acts on the basis of this imputed
(toegeschreven) meaning.  distinctive (kenmerken) epistemological implementations

When the social scientist adopts an interpretative stance, he doesn’t simply reveal how members of a
social group interpret the world around them. There is a double interpretation going on: the
researcher proives an interpretation of others’ interpretation. (third level: interpretations interpreted
in concepts, theories, etc.  inductive strategy).

Ontological considerations: a theory of the nature of social entities. The central point of orientation
here is the question of whether social entities can and should be considered objective entities that
have a reality external to social actors, or whether they can and should be considered social
constructions built up from the perceptions and actions of social actors. These two positions are
referred to respectively as objectivism and constructionism.

Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an
existence that is independent of social actors. External facts are beyond our reach or influence. The
social entity in question comes across as something external to the actor and as having an almost
tangible (tastbaar) reality of its own. It has characteristics of an object and an objective reality.

Constructionism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are
continually being accomplished by social actors. Social phenomena are produced through social
interaction and are in a constant state of revision. Knowledge is viewed as indeterminate (onbepaald).
Social reality is an ongoing accomplishment of social actors. Meaning is constructed in and through
interaction. ( discourse analysis)

Ontological assumptions and commitments will feed into the ways in which research questions are
formulated and research is carried out.

,Research strategy: quantitative (measurement) and qualitative research

Quantitative Qualitative
Role of theory in research Deductive (testing of theory) Inductive (generation of
theory)
Epistemological orientation Natural science model, in Interpretivism (how
particular (met name) individuals interpret their
positivism social world)
Ontological orientation Objectivism (external, Constructionism (constantly
objective reality) shifting of individuals’
creation)


Studies that have the broad characteristics of one research strategy may have a characteristic of the
other. Mixed methods research: research that combines methods associated with both quantitative
and qualitative research.

Influences on the conduct (onderzoek) of social research:


Theory
Practical
Ontology considerations
Social
research

Values Epistemology
Values reflect either the personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher. It is not feasible to keep
researchers’ values totally in check. It can intrude at any point in the process of social research.

You have to recognize and acknowledge research cannot be value free. Exhibit (vertonen) reflexivity
about the part played by values and bias (vooroordeel).

Conscious partiality: partial identification with the research objects’  value-laden research.

Practical considerations in decisions about how social research should be carried out:

- Choices of research strategy, design, or method have to be tailored (toegesneden) to the
research question being investigated (bv. worldviews  qualitative).
- If a researcher is interested in a topic on which little or no research has been done in the
past, quantitative research may be difficult to employ (little prior literature).
- The nature of the topic and/or of the people being investigated (bv. individuals or small
groups  survey is unlikely).

All social research is a coming-together of the ideal and the feasible (haalbare), so that there will be
many circumstances in which the nature of the topic or of the participants in an investigation and the
constraints (beperkingen) on a researcher loom large in decisions about how best to proceed.

HS 4 (formulating suitable research questions)

, Qualitative research tends to be more open-ended than quantitative research. However, very open-
ended research is risky and can lead to collection of too much data and confusion about your focus.

Research area


Select aspect of research area


Research questions


Select research questions


It may derive from any of several sources (are not mutually exclusive, you can have two):

- Personal interest/experience
- Theory
- The research literature: studies relating to a research area. Spotting overlooked or under-
researched areas and identifying areas of research that have not been previously examined
using a particular theory or perspective. Research questions are rarely (zelden) innovative
and rarely likely to engender (voortbrengen) significant theoretical departures (afwijkingen).
- Puzzles: two different point of view as rival hypotheses.
- New developments in society
- Social problem

 We cannot answer all the research questions that occur to us. We must keep a clear focus, so
that our research questions relate to each other and form a coherent set of issues.
 We therefore have to select from the possible research questions that we arrive at.
 In making our selection, we should be guided by the principle that the research questions we
choose should be related to one another.

Research questions should exhibit the following characteristics:

- Clear: intelligible (begrijpelijk)
- Researchable: they should allow you to do research in relation to them.
- Connection(s) with established (gevestigde) theory and research: there should be literature.
And the connection has to be demonstrated.
- The research questions should be linked to each other
- Make an original contribution to the topic (however small)
- The questions should be neither too broad, neither too small.

You need to show how your research questions came about and why they are important (justified).

HS 3 (research designs)
A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. A choice of research
design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research
process. These include the importance attached to:

- Expressing causal connections between variables;
- Generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those actually forming part of the
investigation;
- Understanding behaviour and the meaning of that behaviour in its specific social context;