PSY1016 Research Methods & Design in Psychology
A study on how Deep processed objects are better
remembered than Shallow processed objects
Middlesex University
Abstract
This research is intended to consider the theory on how deep processed items are better remembered than
shallow processed items by relating it to Craik and Lockhart (1972) influential study which suggests that the
deeper is the processing the long lasting the memory will be.
A total of 153 participants, 131 females and 19 males with an age range between 17 and 50, took part in
the experiment carried out at Middlesex University. The type of design used was repeated measures.
The research consisted in showing to participants line drawings of various objects, they were required to
distinguish if whether the objects were natural or manmade and upright or tilted. Subsequently,
participants were asked for the completion of the memory score sheet and the scores were registered for
analysis into SPSS.
A table with means and standard deviation for memory scores was created alongside a bar chart and a
paired sample t-test, which resulted in the difference being significant meaning the objects were better
remembered in the Deep condition rather than the Shallow condition.
Introduction
Memory is defined as the process to be able to register, store and retrieve information, for example when
an individual studies for a test, they register the material, store it long term and retrieve the information on
the day of the test. (Gross, 2020, p. 277)
Memory is essential in the study of cognitive psychology since it is significant in the human mental
experience, without memory individuals will not be able to communicate effectively (e.g. read or write) and
form relationships with other people. Our connections with other people and with the environment
depends fundamentally on having an efficient memory system (Eysenck & Keane, 2020, p. 237).
Because of the complexity there are various studies revolved around this topic.
An important study on memory processing was the one from Craik and Lockhart (1972), who proposed the
levels of processing: shallow, intermediate, deep. (Gross, 2020, p. 290) It was suggested that the deeper is
the processing the long lasting the memory will be.
Through various experiments Craik and Tulving (1975) observed that the participants recollection was
based on their cognitive decision. The experiment consisted in the participants answering questions about
the type-script (Shallow), rhymes (Intermediate), the meaning of the word and if it would fit into a
particular category (Deep), then they were surprisingly given a recall assessment about the words. (Craik &
Tulving, 1975)
It was recognised that the shallow task took longer and was less distinguishable compared to an easy deep
task (Craik & Tulving, 1975).
, Another study was conducted by Maki and Schuler, 1980 about the effects of rehearsal duration and level
of processing on memory for words.
Craik and Lockhart suggested a difference between Type 1 and Type 2 rehearsal in their previous study.
Type 1 rehearsal relates to the recycling of an object in memory while the level of encoding remains
unchanged, while Type 2 rehearsal relates to a process which increases the depth of the encoding. (Maki &
Schuler, 1980) Three experiments were used to study Type 1 rehearsal. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
Darley and Glass (1975) found that long term recall increased in Type 1 rehearsal time, while Craik and
Watkins (1973) found that Type 1 rehearsal had no result on long term recall. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
In the experiment, both carried the same task of remembering words for an amount of time followed then
by an unexpected free-recall test for the words, then levels of processing and rehearsal duration were
manipulated (Maki & Schuler, 1980). It was observed in both experiments that as a result of longer
rehearsal intervals and deeper levels of processing recall was increased. These could influence memory
independently by reinforcing various characteristics. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
Lastly, three experiments were carried out by Bradshaw and Anderson, 1982 to study how elaboration of
memory structures affects recall accuracy and response latency.
Participants were required to memorize the materials and each fact that was presented, then complete a
sheet of paper where they had to write down all the facts they could remember and how it is related
(Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982).
It was revealed that in all the three experiments reaction time were faster for single objects rather than
unrelated objects (Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982). Therefore it was showed that items that were introduced
on their own and items accompanied by relevant facts were remembered better than items accompanied
by unrelated facts, even though participants received more practice on unrelated items (Bradshaw &
Anderson, 1982). The results were found to support the encoding elaboration model (Anderson & Reder,
1979, as cited in Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982).
Based on these previous studies this research will look into how levels of processing style can influence
memory. The hypothesis of this study is that deeply studied objects result in better memory compared to
shallow studied objects, this also relates to the research aim which is the testing of the theory that deep
processed items are remembered better.
Method
- Participants:
With the use of opportunity sampling there were a total of 153 undergraduate students at Middlesex
University who took part in the research as part of their module, consisting of 131 females and 19 males.
The age range of these participants was between 17 and 50, while the mean age was 20.47 and the SD was
5.26.
3 participants preferred to not reveal their age, while 2 participants choose to not reveal their sex and
another participant choose to not reveal both the sex and age.
- Design:
The research compares mean memory scores in the deep and shallow conditions. In this research the type
of design being used was repeated measures.
The independent variable was the processing styles which has 2 levels: deep and shallow processing, while
the dependent variable was the memory scores from -16 to 11 making it Ratio data.
- Materials:
The research consisted in showing line drawings of 32 objects obtained from a database (Snodgrass &
Vanderwart, 1980). There was a set of 16 objects for natural/manmade and another 16 objects for
A study on how Deep processed objects are better
remembered than Shallow processed objects
Middlesex University
Abstract
This research is intended to consider the theory on how deep processed items are better remembered than
shallow processed items by relating it to Craik and Lockhart (1972) influential study which suggests that the
deeper is the processing the long lasting the memory will be.
A total of 153 participants, 131 females and 19 males with an age range between 17 and 50, took part in
the experiment carried out at Middlesex University. The type of design used was repeated measures.
The research consisted in showing to participants line drawings of various objects, they were required to
distinguish if whether the objects were natural or manmade and upright or tilted. Subsequently,
participants were asked for the completion of the memory score sheet and the scores were registered for
analysis into SPSS.
A table with means and standard deviation for memory scores was created alongside a bar chart and a
paired sample t-test, which resulted in the difference being significant meaning the objects were better
remembered in the Deep condition rather than the Shallow condition.
Introduction
Memory is defined as the process to be able to register, store and retrieve information, for example when
an individual studies for a test, they register the material, store it long term and retrieve the information on
the day of the test. (Gross, 2020, p. 277)
Memory is essential in the study of cognitive psychology since it is significant in the human mental
experience, without memory individuals will not be able to communicate effectively (e.g. read or write) and
form relationships with other people. Our connections with other people and with the environment
depends fundamentally on having an efficient memory system (Eysenck & Keane, 2020, p. 237).
Because of the complexity there are various studies revolved around this topic.
An important study on memory processing was the one from Craik and Lockhart (1972), who proposed the
levels of processing: shallow, intermediate, deep. (Gross, 2020, p. 290) It was suggested that the deeper is
the processing the long lasting the memory will be.
Through various experiments Craik and Tulving (1975) observed that the participants recollection was
based on their cognitive decision. The experiment consisted in the participants answering questions about
the type-script (Shallow), rhymes (Intermediate), the meaning of the word and if it would fit into a
particular category (Deep), then they were surprisingly given a recall assessment about the words. (Craik &
Tulving, 1975)
It was recognised that the shallow task took longer and was less distinguishable compared to an easy deep
task (Craik & Tulving, 1975).
, Another study was conducted by Maki and Schuler, 1980 about the effects of rehearsal duration and level
of processing on memory for words.
Craik and Lockhart suggested a difference between Type 1 and Type 2 rehearsal in their previous study.
Type 1 rehearsal relates to the recycling of an object in memory while the level of encoding remains
unchanged, while Type 2 rehearsal relates to a process which increases the depth of the encoding. (Maki &
Schuler, 1980) Three experiments were used to study Type 1 rehearsal. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
Darley and Glass (1975) found that long term recall increased in Type 1 rehearsal time, while Craik and
Watkins (1973) found that Type 1 rehearsal had no result on long term recall. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
In the experiment, both carried the same task of remembering words for an amount of time followed then
by an unexpected free-recall test for the words, then levels of processing and rehearsal duration were
manipulated (Maki & Schuler, 1980). It was observed in both experiments that as a result of longer
rehearsal intervals and deeper levels of processing recall was increased. These could influence memory
independently by reinforcing various characteristics. (Maki & Schuler, 1980)
Lastly, three experiments were carried out by Bradshaw and Anderson, 1982 to study how elaboration of
memory structures affects recall accuracy and response latency.
Participants were required to memorize the materials and each fact that was presented, then complete a
sheet of paper where they had to write down all the facts they could remember and how it is related
(Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982).
It was revealed that in all the three experiments reaction time were faster for single objects rather than
unrelated objects (Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982). Therefore it was showed that items that were introduced
on their own and items accompanied by relevant facts were remembered better than items accompanied
by unrelated facts, even though participants received more practice on unrelated items (Bradshaw &
Anderson, 1982). The results were found to support the encoding elaboration model (Anderson & Reder,
1979, as cited in Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982).
Based on these previous studies this research will look into how levels of processing style can influence
memory. The hypothesis of this study is that deeply studied objects result in better memory compared to
shallow studied objects, this also relates to the research aim which is the testing of the theory that deep
processed items are remembered better.
Method
- Participants:
With the use of opportunity sampling there were a total of 153 undergraduate students at Middlesex
University who took part in the research as part of their module, consisting of 131 females and 19 males.
The age range of these participants was between 17 and 50, while the mean age was 20.47 and the SD was
5.26.
3 participants preferred to not reveal their age, while 2 participants choose to not reveal their sex and
another participant choose to not reveal both the sex and age.
- Design:
The research compares mean memory scores in the deep and shallow conditions. In this research the type
of design being used was repeated measures.
The independent variable was the processing styles which has 2 levels: deep and shallow processing, while
the dependent variable was the memory scores from -16 to 11 making it Ratio data.
- Materials:
The research consisted in showing line drawings of 32 objects obtained from a database (Snodgrass &
Vanderwart, 1980). There was a set of 16 objects for natural/manmade and another 16 objects for
