Topic 1: Beowulf
September 12th, 2022
Background to Beowulf
The poem originates from an oral tradition (who’s the author? No idea.)
● Takes place in Anglo-Saxon (before the Norman Conquest of 1066)
● A great deal of debate about how this poem comes down to us – emanates from an oral
culture, but even when it was written down, it was committed to paper in a manuscript
We have Pagan (pre-Christian-ish) and Christian traditions combined together here,
● Some complex layering here – Roman Empire (when it collapsed) already adopted
Christianity as the chief religion in the empire
● In this era, this area of the world is obscure and confused. The Roman Empire falls, and
Britain becomes prey to the Viking era (invasions!)
○ A return of Pagan religions, of the Nordic supernatural pantheon of gods
○ These words are part of our language today – Thursday is Thor’s day(?)
● In the 6th century, the era of St. Augustine (the founder of the church in England), Britain
is re-Christianized. Christianity is built into pre-Christian, Pagan traditions.
○ The idea that Jesus is born again is laid onto existing cultural frameworks
Beowulf and Nostalgia
The poem is looking back at a society of warrior-kings. An era, a period, and a societal structure
that leads to its own destruction.
● We are left wondering, as the poem’s various narrative voices do: do we celebrate or
condemn this era? Is this something meant to be endorsed or questioned?
● This poem has historically been received as an epic. An epic is often seen as a
foundational document of a culture.
○ If ancient Greece had the Odyssey, then Britain must have an epic as well.
● Themes in Epics: central figures (male heroes), [villains], legacy (change over time?),
genealogies, gods, narrative structure, values of a culture (or society), fate and destiny
○ Wyrd (origin of our understanding of the word “weird”)
■ What is someone’s fate? Destiny?
● How would you describe this world? Gold and beautiful things are intimately connected
with status. This society is very honour driven. Loyalty to the king, monarch, or head of
society (the King is seen as having a connection to the supernatural and gods – this
worshipping ritual is a reflection of ancient tradition). The transactional nature of honour
is laid own in the way that debts are handed out and repaid.
○ Honour is a kind of moral status. It’s not simply being above or below someone
on the hierarchy but has to do with the degree to which someone is worthy of
respect.
, ● The hall inside is like a condensed version of society. All of the comforts within is
mitigated by the monster stalking the people from the outside.
○ Deep psychological appeal to the idea that the unknown, the outside, the other, is
monstrous and threatening (and wants to kill us and eat us)
● Beowulf killing Grendel without any weapons is kind of interesting – there’s parallelism
and equivalence that’s set up between them.
○ This is also about fair play, which is central to the code of honour. But it isn’t fair
when he needs a little boost with the undersea ocean world of Grendel's mother.
○ What does Grendel even look like?
● Warrior code in the world of Beowulf –
● Violence and property and capital are interwoven in the world of Beowulf. Many early
civilizations have been destroyed by greed and pride.
● In the beginning of the poem, Beowulf is understood to be undoubtedly good. He is the
hero from across the ocean and is indubitably aligned with good morals and values.
○ He is here to cleanse and deliver the people and the hall from Grendel’s eruptions
and villainy.
○ “The good kinsman of Hygelac” – Beowulf
○ Beowulf insists on an even fight. Grendel is fated to lose.
● In death, Grendel is reduced to a trophy. It is a relic of a hunt, symbolizing the violence in
sports. His grizzly arm is displayed in the hall (that’s what Grendel’s been reduced to).
○ Crucially, fate is operating in Beowulf’s favor. It is not surprising how the story
ends. It is not a surprise ending. We know where it’s going.
■ The epic signposts the various stages of the epic as it proceeds.
■ This is God’s will, that Beowulf will win.
■ Beowulf is simply instrumental of a higher power. He is simply doing
God’s bidding here.
September 14th, 2022
Grendel’s Mother
An interesting character – captures a lot of the ambivalences that the poem manifests.
● Avenging her son is totally consistent with the Warrior Code.
● Her aqueous lair – what a setting! Medieval literature captivates us in these moments.
Beowulf battles the sea creatures, he then enters Grendel’s mother’s lair.
● She is harder to kill – Grendel, despite being fearsome and terrifying, was easy to kill.
● With the mother, we get the sense that this is a more dubious endeavour.
● Maybe what he’s doing in itself and its moral ambiguity is represented in difficulty.
● We are told the convenient magical sword is ancient and Pagan.
Up until the battle with Grendel’s mother, this society is very masculine-dominant.
● Her maternal presence commands some sort of authority.
, ● Interesting – why did she bring him to the lair to fight him on equal ground when she
could have probably killed him in the water?
○ Think about her lastness – after she and Grendel die, the age of monsters ends.
○ Beowulf is a poem about endings.
Grendel’s mother has a better reason to kill Beowulf than her son did (she’s avenging herself).
But why is Beowulf choosing to use a weapon against Grendel’s mother when he killed Grendel
with his bare hands?
● In this society, men are viewed to be stronger. Why does he need a weapon to kill a
female? Aren’t they weaker?
● Gender hierarchy – being played with or undermined by the greater degree of difficulty
and the fact that he also needs help.
○ Beowulf’s revenge on killing Grendel’s mother is seen as heroic.
○ Grendel’s mother killing someone in vengeance for her son causes an uproar.
■ Very in accordance with the historical beliefs of this society
■ Being reminded to think in terms of these parallel situations (why are
they being adjudicated and evaluated differently?)
○ A lot more personal and justifiable when Grendel’s mother kills a random person
to avenge her son versus Beowulf making the species extinct for fame and glory.
● If we can’t sum it up as a battle of good and evil (moral ambiguity), then what is it?
Structure of Beowulf
Often understood to revolve around the three battles (Grendel, Grendel’s mother, the dragon)
● Grendel – Beowulf has no armour and needs no help (on land)
○ Good and evil are pretty well defined here.
● Grendel’s mother – Beowulf needs armour and a magical sword (underwater)
○ Beowulf is figured as an intruder as much as he is a righteous avenger
○ Is good and evil as clear here? Not really (a bit murkier).
○ Symbolic act – killing Beowulf twice (ultimate disrespect)
○ Divine intervention (God is on Beowulf’s side)
● Dragon – things have changed a lot, Beowulf’s heroism has been rewarded and
recognized with Kingship (he is an old and weak man)
○ He’s dealing with fire here.
○ Heavy foreshadowing – the final battle that Beowulf is involved in will not work.
○ Beowulf’s thanes abandon him (cowardly disloyalty)
■ He wields only a dagger (continuation of his symbolic ability)
■ The fight is too much for him (here, it is Beowulf that becomes the very
last of his people…)
○ The afterlife is rendered in an ambiguous way – his final thought was to “seek the
judgement of the righteous”
■ Dark way of framing the concept of redemption and eternal life
, ■ Disloyalty is intimately and intrinsically connected with the way that the
poem is poised on the idea of imminent social collapse
● Doom is definite
There’s something transactional about the cycles of killing.
● He handed back payment to the people after he killed Grendel
● He talks to Hrothgar – they gave him many treasures for killing Grendel’s mother
○ “I wasn’t doomed yet” — fate vs. doom?
■ Fate isn’t necessarily doom, but the concept of wyrd encompasses both the
ideas of “fate” and “doom”
■ “Yet” implies that doom is inevitable (there will be a circumstance in
which the battle will not go his direction)
Anxiety about continuity – what is going to carry on?
The poem ends with this stunning depiction of Beowulf being sent off.
● The men at the gates lamented the fall of their prince.
● “The most eager for fame.” All that praise and then a little bit of critique.
Topic 2: Canterbury Tales (General Prologue)
September 21st, 2022
Historical Background + Contexts
1066: Norman Conquest (importation into England the stories of knights)
● Achieves different things in Britain than it did in France
14th Century: Roman Catholic Church is divided (two Popes!)
● Lasted for most of the 14th Century.
1346 - 1353: Black Death (Bubonic Plague) – 30% of the human population is wiped out.
1381: The Peasants’ Revolt (revolt against increasing taxes)
Geoffrey Chaucer
Not only a poet but also the “Controller of Customs” (a civil service job for a number of Kings).
● Travelled in a manner that was quite unusual for the 14th century – he went to Italy,
Spain, France, etc. He is a more sophisticated character.
● Writing in the vernacular language (most literature was noble writing) – notable because
he is writing in the language that peasants spoke (limited education, only educated and
rich white men could read and write).
○ Only people in the Church or people with social authority could read and write.
○ The language itself was an indication of world sophistication – you wouldn’t
usually write in the vernacular (you would write in French or Latin).
○ The highly unusual nature of this endeavour has led many to suggest that one of
the things Chaucer is doing is bringing validity to English as a language.
■ This is an obscure, backward, and ignorant corner of Europe.
September 12th, 2022
Background to Beowulf
The poem originates from an oral tradition (who’s the author? No idea.)
● Takes place in Anglo-Saxon (before the Norman Conquest of 1066)
● A great deal of debate about how this poem comes down to us – emanates from an oral
culture, but even when it was written down, it was committed to paper in a manuscript
We have Pagan (pre-Christian-ish) and Christian traditions combined together here,
● Some complex layering here – Roman Empire (when it collapsed) already adopted
Christianity as the chief religion in the empire
● In this era, this area of the world is obscure and confused. The Roman Empire falls, and
Britain becomes prey to the Viking era (invasions!)
○ A return of Pagan religions, of the Nordic supernatural pantheon of gods
○ These words are part of our language today – Thursday is Thor’s day(?)
● In the 6th century, the era of St. Augustine (the founder of the church in England), Britain
is re-Christianized. Christianity is built into pre-Christian, Pagan traditions.
○ The idea that Jesus is born again is laid onto existing cultural frameworks
Beowulf and Nostalgia
The poem is looking back at a society of warrior-kings. An era, a period, and a societal structure
that leads to its own destruction.
● We are left wondering, as the poem’s various narrative voices do: do we celebrate or
condemn this era? Is this something meant to be endorsed or questioned?
● This poem has historically been received as an epic. An epic is often seen as a
foundational document of a culture.
○ If ancient Greece had the Odyssey, then Britain must have an epic as well.
● Themes in Epics: central figures (male heroes), [villains], legacy (change over time?),
genealogies, gods, narrative structure, values of a culture (or society), fate and destiny
○ Wyrd (origin of our understanding of the word “weird”)
■ What is someone’s fate? Destiny?
● How would you describe this world? Gold and beautiful things are intimately connected
with status. This society is very honour driven. Loyalty to the king, monarch, or head of
society (the King is seen as having a connection to the supernatural and gods – this
worshipping ritual is a reflection of ancient tradition). The transactional nature of honour
is laid own in the way that debts are handed out and repaid.
○ Honour is a kind of moral status. It’s not simply being above or below someone
on the hierarchy but has to do with the degree to which someone is worthy of
respect.
, ● The hall inside is like a condensed version of society. All of the comforts within is
mitigated by the monster stalking the people from the outside.
○ Deep psychological appeal to the idea that the unknown, the outside, the other, is
monstrous and threatening (and wants to kill us and eat us)
● Beowulf killing Grendel without any weapons is kind of interesting – there’s parallelism
and equivalence that’s set up between them.
○ This is also about fair play, which is central to the code of honour. But it isn’t fair
when he needs a little boost with the undersea ocean world of Grendel's mother.
○ What does Grendel even look like?
● Warrior code in the world of Beowulf –
● Violence and property and capital are interwoven in the world of Beowulf. Many early
civilizations have been destroyed by greed and pride.
● In the beginning of the poem, Beowulf is understood to be undoubtedly good. He is the
hero from across the ocean and is indubitably aligned with good morals and values.
○ He is here to cleanse and deliver the people and the hall from Grendel’s eruptions
and villainy.
○ “The good kinsman of Hygelac” – Beowulf
○ Beowulf insists on an even fight. Grendel is fated to lose.
● In death, Grendel is reduced to a trophy. It is a relic of a hunt, symbolizing the violence in
sports. His grizzly arm is displayed in the hall (that’s what Grendel’s been reduced to).
○ Crucially, fate is operating in Beowulf’s favor. It is not surprising how the story
ends. It is not a surprise ending. We know where it’s going.
■ The epic signposts the various stages of the epic as it proceeds.
■ This is God’s will, that Beowulf will win.
■ Beowulf is simply instrumental of a higher power. He is simply doing
God’s bidding here.
September 14th, 2022
Grendel’s Mother
An interesting character – captures a lot of the ambivalences that the poem manifests.
● Avenging her son is totally consistent with the Warrior Code.
● Her aqueous lair – what a setting! Medieval literature captivates us in these moments.
Beowulf battles the sea creatures, he then enters Grendel’s mother’s lair.
● She is harder to kill – Grendel, despite being fearsome and terrifying, was easy to kill.
● With the mother, we get the sense that this is a more dubious endeavour.
● Maybe what he’s doing in itself and its moral ambiguity is represented in difficulty.
● We are told the convenient magical sword is ancient and Pagan.
Up until the battle with Grendel’s mother, this society is very masculine-dominant.
● Her maternal presence commands some sort of authority.
, ● Interesting – why did she bring him to the lair to fight him on equal ground when she
could have probably killed him in the water?
○ Think about her lastness – after she and Grendel die, the age of monsters ends.
○ Beowulf is a poem about endings.
Grendel’s mother has a better reason to kill Beowulf than her son did (she’s avenging herself).
But why is Beowulf choosing to use a weapon against Grendel’s mother when he killed Grendel
with his bare hands?
● In this society, men are viewed to be stronger. Why does he need a weapon to kill a
female? Aren’t they weaker?
● Gender hierarchy – being played with or undermined by the greater degree of difficulty
and the fact that he also needs help.
○ Beowulf’s revenge on killing Grendel’s mother is seen as heroic.
○ Grendel’s mother killing someone in vengeance for her son causes an uproar.
■ Very in accordance with the historical beliefs of this society
■ Being reminded to think in terms of these parallel situations (why are
they being adjudicated and evaluated differently?)
○ A lot more personal and justifiable when Grendel’s mother kills a random person
to avenge her son versus Beowulf making the species extinct for fame and glory.
● If we can’t sum it up as a battle of good and evil (moral ambiguity), then what is it?
Structure of Beowulf
Often understood to revolve around the three battles (Grendel, Grendel’s mother, the dragon)
● Grendel – Beowulf has no armour and needs no help (on land)
○ Good and evil are pretty well defined here.
● Grendel’s mother – Beowulf needs armour and a magical sword (underwater)
○ Beowulf is figured as an intruder as much as he is a righteous avenger
○ Is good and evil as clear here? Not really (a bit murkier).
○ Symbolic act – killing Beowulf twice (ultimate disrespect)
○ Divine intervention (God is on Beowulf’s side)
● Dragon – things have changed a lot, Beowulf’s heroism has been rewarded and
recognized with Kingship (he is an old and weak man)
○ He’s dealing with fire here.
○ Heavy foreshadowing – the final battle that Beowulf is involved in will not work.
○ Beowulf’s thanes abandon him (cowardly disloyalty)
■ He wields only a dagger (continuation of his symbolic ability)
■ The fight is too much for him (here, it is Beowulf that becomes the very
last of his people…)
○ The afterlife is rendered in an ambiguous way – his final thought was to “seek the
judgement of the righteous”
■ Dark way of framing the concept of redemption and eternal life
, ■ Disloyalty is intimately and intrinsically connected with the way that the
poem is poised on the idea of imminent social collapse
● Doom is definite
There’s something transactional about the cycles of killing.
● He handed back payment to the people after he killed Grendel
● He talks to Hrothgar – they gave him many treasures for killing Grendel’s mother
○ “I wasn’t doomed yet” — fate vs. doom?
■ Fate isn’t necessarily doom, but the concept of wyrd encompasses both the
ideas of “fate” and “doom”
■ “Yet” implies that doom is inevitable (there will be a circumstance in
which the battle will not go his direction)
Anxiety about continuity – what is going to carry on?
The poem ends with this stunning depiction of Beowulf being sent off.
● The men at the gates lamented the fall of their prince.
● “The most eager for fame.” All that praise and then a little bit of critique.
Topic 2: Canterbury Tales (General Prologue)
September 21st, 2022
Historical Background + Contexts
1066: Norman Conquest (importation into England the stories of knights)
● Achieves different things in Britain than it did in France
14th Century: Roman Catholic Church is divided (two Popes!)
● Lasted for most of the 14th Century.
1346 - 1353: Black Death (Bubonic Plague) – 30% of the human population is wiped out.
1381: The Peasants’ Revolt (revolt against increasing taxes)
Geoffrey Chaucer
Not only a poet but also the “Controller of Customs” (a civil service job for a number of Kings).
● Travelled in a manner that was quite unusual for the 14th century – he went to Italy,
Spain, France, etc. He is a more sophisticated character.
● Writing in the vernacular language (most literature was noble writing) – notable because
he is writing in the language that peasants spoke (limited education, only educated and
rich white men could read and write).
○ Only people in the Church or people with social authority could read and write.
○ The language itself was an indication of world sophistication – you wouldn’t
usually write in the vernacular (you would write in French or Latin).
○ The highly unusual nature of this endeavour has led many to suggest that one of
the things Chaucer is doing is bringing validity to English as a language.
■ This is an obscure, backward, and ignorant corner of Europe.
