Summary Emotion
Number of pages: 19
Table of content
Chapter 2 - Book 2
Manipulating Emotions 2
Measuring Emotions 3
Article: Social psychological Methods of Emotion Elicitation (Harmon-Jones et al., 2007) 5
Designing a Social Psychological Experiment 5
Chapter 1 - Book 7
Theories of emotion 7
Chapter 4 - book 9
Consequences of emotion deficit 9
Survival function 10
Communication Function of Emotion for the Dyad 11
Social coordination function for the group 12
Chapter 5 - book 12
The mechanics of facial expressions 12
Origin of facial expressions 13
What facial expressions convey 13
Facial feedback hypothesis 14
Other components of emotion expression 14
Chapter 8 - book 15
Mental representation of emotion knowledge 15
Emotion shapes perception 15
Emotion influence memory 16
Judgement and decision making. 16
Article: Make America gracious again: Collective nostalgia can increase and decrease support for
right-wing populist rhetoric (Lammers & Baldwin, 2020) 17
Conclusion 18
Article: Explaining Radical Group Behaviour: Developing Emotion and Efficacy Routes to Normative
and Nonnormative Collective Action (Tausch et al., 2011) 18
The role of emotions in normative and non-normative collective action: anger vs contempt 18
The role of efficacy appraisals in predicting normative and nonnormative collective action 18
1
, Chapter 2 - Book
Manipulating Emotions
A researcher would induce an emotion, to test predictions of a specific theory of emotion. To study emotions
influence cognitive behaviours such as reasoning or decision making.
Ethical guidelines
Researchers are required to conform to a set of ethical guidelines, which are specified by the APA. For
example, scientists should not create a situation in which intensity of participants’ emotions surpasses those
that they typically experience in daily life. Also, experimentally induced emotions should be prompted by
experiences that are encountered in everyday life. Finally, emotions should be extinguishable and alleviated
before the participant leaves the experiment. The importance of debriefing to alleviate emotions is well
documented.
Affective images
Used if researchers require many brief emotional reactions. The IAPS (International Affective Picture System)
is a set of emotion-inducing images. These images have been presented to participants in different countries
so that norms exist that summarise the positivity and arousal level of the typical self-reported affective reaction
to each image. These images have also been measured with skin conductance, cardiovascular response, and
neural electrophysiology.
These images have been developed to reliably elicit affective responses by using the exact same images,
which can be compared and even replicated.
Emotional memories
Used for more prolonged emotional reaction. Done by asking the participants to get active in the process of
experiencing emotion, retrieve memories of events that they experienced personally and to relive the emotion
they felt.
The way in which the memory is retrieved determines whether an emotion is felt. The retrieval of emotional
memories in a pallid way - a way that does not focus on the emotional parts of the experience but still
accurately describes the situation - does not reactivate the original emotion; retrieval that involves attention to
the vivid emotional aspects of the situation tends to reactivate the original emotion.
Films
Films can be used to produce a particular emotion or reaction in most individuals. Researchers must always
study the emotional effects of the method before using it in an experiment. Many researchers have used film
segments developed by Philippot and Gross to conduct research on the components of emotions and on the
effects of emotions on other psychological processes. If researchers use segments of films that they have
found themselves, they are required to demonstrate empirically that their movies have desired emotional
effect.
Music
Can be used to elicit certain emotions. It is possible to find pieces of music which match the participants
emotions; it would work well, but it would be very time consuming. More often, they rely on general effects of
music on people’s emotions.
E.g. Dissonant bichords are perceived as unstable, furious, and tense. This will make the listener feel anxious.
Minor chords as sadder and gloomier
High pitched tones associated with positive emotions
Low pitched tones to express negative emotions
Slow tempo express low-arousal emotions
Fast tempo express high-arousal emotions
2
, These different qualities of music can also be combined to produce an endless palette of emotional
expressions.
Music has been shown to influence emotion as shown by self-report, physiological reactions, activity in the
brain, and facial expression of emotion. However, the emotions elicited by music may not correspond to the
basic emotion. Some researchers show that music induces subtle states that refer to nuanced feelings such as
sensual, spiritual, and meditative.
Scripted social interaction
Studies of emotions sometimes include cover stories. These scripted social interactions induce emotions
which are particularly useful when the emotion under study is difficult to elicit with images, films, and music
and when a very realistic state is desired. E.g. anger, fear, guilt, and embarrassment. Scripted interactions
inductions of emotions are useful for eliciting strong and complex emotions. However they are often very time
consuming and usually require a high level of social coordination and training.
Naturally occurring emotions
Examine behaviours of individuals who are experiencing different states naturally due to events in their lives.
You can get participants by finding groups of people who have a strong probability of all being in a similar and
predictable emotional state, and compare them to people in another situation. Or measure ongoing emotion in
the lab or in daily life using online assessments and relate their reported emotions to the behaviour of interest.
Quasi-experimental designs
Quasi-experimental studies are experimental and control conditions, but participants are not randomly
assigned to them. The emotion-eliciting event might be naturally occurring or arranged by the experimenter.
Correlation Designs
Correlational research two behaviours or events are measured in order to quantify the direction (positive or
negative) and strength (from 0 to 1) of the relationship between them. Some researchers may want to measure
naturally occurring emotions and other behaviours as they occur in everyday life.
There are 3 ways for the collection of experience-sampling data.
1. Interval-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out computer-based questionnaires at regular times throughout the day.
2. Event-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out questionnaires in response to specific types of events.
3. Signal-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out questionnaires whenever the computer signals them to do so.
Induction methods are not all the same
● Experimental demand refers to how easy it is for experimental participants to guess what a study is
designed to test. To avoid such influences researchers use a cover story to mask the true purpose of
the study
● Standardisation is the extent to which the method to induce emotions has been pilot-tested for
effectiveness and reliability across people and contexts.
● Complexity refers to invoking many components of the emotion in the lab experience
● Ecological validity is the extent to which the experience is similar to what might be experienced in daily
life.
Measuring Emotions
Questionnaires
Can be done with Likert scale, which is a verbal measure. Questionnaires with nonverbal formats, is when
pictures represent feeling states.
3
Number of pages: 19
Table of content
Chapter 2 - Book 2
Manipulating Emotions 2
Measuring Emotions 3
Article: Social psychological Methods of Emotion Elicitation (Harmon-Jones et al., 2007) 5
Designing a Social Psychological Experiment 5
Chapter 1 - Book 7
Theories of emotion 7
Chapter 4 - book 9
Consequences of emotion deficit 9
Survival function 10
Communication Function of Emotion for the Dyad 11
Social coordination function for the group 12
Chapter 5 - book 12
The mechanics of facial expressions 12
Origin of facial expressions 13
What facial expressions convey 13
Facial feedback hypothesis 14
Other components of emotion expression 14
Chapter 8 - book 15
Mental representation of emotion knowledge 15
Emotion shapes perception 15
Emotion influence memory 16
Judgement and decision making. 16
Article: Make America gracious again: Collective nostalgia can increase and decrease support for
right-wing populist rhetoric (Lammers & Baldwin, 2020) 17
Conclusion 18
Article: Explaining Radical Group Behaviour: Developing Emotion and Efficacy Routes to Normative
and Nonnormative Collective Action (Tausch et al., 2011) 18
The role of emotions in normative and non-normative collective action: anger vs contempt 18
The role of efficacy appraisals in predicting normative and nonnormative collective action 18
1
, Chapter 2 - Book
Manipulating Emotions
A researcher would induce an emotion, to test predictions of a specific theory of emotion. To study emotions
influence cognitive behaviours such as reasoning or decision making.
Ethical guidelines
Researchers are required to conform to a set of ethical guidelines, which are specified by the APA. For
example, scientists should not create a situation in which intensity of participants’ emotions surpasses those
that they typically experience in daily life. Also, experimentally induced emotions should be prompted by
experiences that are encountered in everyday life. Finally, emotions should be extinguishable and alleviated
before the participant leaves the experiment. The importance of debriefing to alleviate emotions is well
documented.
Affective images
Used if researchers require many brief emotional reactions. The IAPS (International Affective Picture System)
is a set of emotion-inducing images. These images have been presented to participants in different countries
so that norms exist that summarise the positivity and arousal level of the typical self-reported affective reaction
to each image. These images have also been measured with skin conductance, cardiovascular response, and
neural electrophysiology.
These images have been developed to reliably elicit affective responses by using the exact same images,
which can be compared and even replicated.
Emotional memories
Used for more prolonged emotional reaction. Done by asking the participants to get active in the process of
experiencing emotion, retrieve memories of events that they experienced personally and to relive the emotion
they felt.
The way in which the memory is retrieved determines whether an emotion is felt. The retrieval of emotional
memories in a pallid way - a way that does not focus on the emotional parts of the experience but still
accurately describes the situation - does not reactivate the original emotion; retrieval that involves attention to
the vivid emotional aspects of the situation tends to reactivate the original emotion.
Films
Films can be used to produce a particular emotion or reaction in most individuals. Researchers must always
study the emotional effects of the method before using it in an experiment. Many researchers have used film
segments developed by Philippot and Gross to conduct research on the components of emotions and on the
effects of emotions on other psychological processes. If researchers use segments of films that they have
found themselves, they are required to demonstrate empirically that their movies have desired emotional
effect.
Music
Can be used to elicit certain emotions. It is possible to find pieces of music which match the participants
emotions; it would work well, but it would be very time consuming. More often, they rely on general effects of
music on people’s emotions.
E.g. Dissonant bichords are perceived as unstable, furious, and tense. This will make the listener feel anxious.
Minor chords as sadder and gloomier
High pitched tones associated with positive emotions
Low pitched tones to express negative emotions
Slow tempo express low-arousal emotions
Fast tempo express high-arousal emotions
2
, These different qualities of music can also be combined to produce an endless palette of emotional
expressions.
Music has been shown to influence emotion as shown by self-report, physiological reactions, activity in the
brain, and facial expression of emotion. However, the emotions elicited by music may not correspond to the
basic emotion. Some researchers show that music induces subtle states that refer to nuanced feelings such as
sensual, spiritual, and meditative.
Scripted social interaction
Studies of emotions sometimes include cover stories. These scripted social interactions induce emotions
which are particularly useful when the emotion under study is difficult to elicit with images, films, and music
and when a very realistic state is desired. E.g. anger, fear, guilt, and embarrassment. Scripted interactions
inductions of emotions are useful for eliciting strong and complex emotions. However they are often very time
consuming and usually require a high level of social coordination and training.
Naturally occurring emotions
Examine behaviours of individuals who are experiencing different states naturally due to events in their lives.
You can get participants by finding groups of people who have a strong probability of all being in a similar and
predictable emotional state, and compare them to people in another situation. Or measure ongoing emotion in
the lab or in daily life using online assessments and relate their reported emotions to the behaviour of interest.
Quasi-experimental designs
Quasi-experimental studies are experimental and control conditions, but participants are not randomly
assigned to them. The emotion-eliciting event might be naturally occurring or arranged by the experimenter.
Correlation Designs
Correlational research two behaviours or events are measured in order to quantify the direction (positive or
negative) and strength (from 0 to 1) of the relationship between them. Some researchers may want to measure
naturally occurring emotions and other behaviours as they occur in everyday life.
There are 3 ways for the collection of experience-sampling data.
1. Interval-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out computer-based questionnaires at regular times throughout the day.
2. Event-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out questionnaires in response to specific types of events.
3. Signal-contingent responding
a. Participants fill out questionnaires whenever the computer signals them to do so.
Induction methods are not all the same
● Experimental demand refers to how easy it is for experimental participants to guess what a study is
designed to test. To avoid such influences researchers use a cover story to mask the true purpose of
the study
● Standardisation is the extent to which the method to induce emotions has been pilot-tested for
effectiveness and reliability across people and contexts.
● Complexity refers to invoking many components of the emotion in the lab experience
● Ecological validity is the extent to which the experience is similar to what might be experienced in daily
life.
Measuring Emotions
Questionnaires
Can be done with Likert scale, which is a verbal measure. Questionnaires with nonverbal formats, is when
pictures represent feeling states.
3
