Summary RSC2601 - Research In Social Sciences summaries.

RSC2601 - Research In Social Sciences summaries. 1. STRATEGIES OF DISCOVERY 1.1 INTRODUCTION ○ Inquiry ~ Process whereby we gain knowledge by observing how things are and thinking logically about what we observed. ○ Social World ~ The part of our existence dealing with how people interact ○ Science = A process of inquiry using logic, observation & theory Logical (makes sense) Has a reference ( observed evidence) Gives a theory (explanation for what was observed) ○ Scientific research = Systematically examine & think about a question. 1.2 SOURCES OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 1.2.1 Tradition ○ We inherit a culture containing generally accepted knowledge ~ Knowledge is cumulative & we can learn from previous generations BUT Can be led into falsehood: ○ Thinking traditionally → don‟t find out how the knowledge was obtained in the first place → Source of knowledge is not questioned ○ Every scientific discipline is based on a tradition of thought 1.2.2 Authority ○ Accepting something as true because of the status of the person who discovered the truth. ○ Can help ~ The expert probably has experience & knows what he is talking about Can hinder ~ Can overestimate the person‟s expertise Experts can be wrong. 1.2.3 Mysticism and religion ○ Religious knowledge is based on the authority of sacred texts ○ Religion can offer meaning, but is not a reliable guide to the literal state of the world 1.2.4 Common sense ○ Ordinary reasoning ○ Relates to what people know intuitively/instinctively ○ Helpful → In everyday life, making decisions & solving problems. → Covers topics everyone knows about & so helps communication BUT ~contains illogical reasoning ~ Doesn‟t - systematically consider how ideas are related to each other - collect information systematically ~ Common sense often originates in tradition 1.2.5 Media myths ○ Mass media ~ Powerful influence on knowledge ~ Most people develop their knowledge from what they see, hear & read in the media ~ BUT its chief purpose is entertainment, not to accurately present reality ○ This leads to distorted information & errors 1.3 Errors in human inquiry and how scientists try to avoid them 1.3.1 Inaccurate observation ○ We need to know “what” before we can explain “why” ○ People tend to carelessness when observing everyday events ○ Scientific Observation ~ Contrasts with this in that it is a conscious activity ~ Deliberate ~ Both simple & complex measurement devices help prevent us from making inaccurate observations. 1.3.2 Over-generalization ○ Arriving at a general conclusion about a thing when we have only observed a few cases of that thing. ○ Using a few events to arrive at a conclusion → means we ignore the possibility that observing more cases may disprove our conclusion ○ Esp tempting when there is pressure to reach a conclusion ○ Halo-effect = Over-generalizing from one very good aspect of a thing ○ Scientific safeguards against overgeneralization ~ Sufficiently large samples of observations ~ Replication of inquiry 1.3.3 Selective observation ○ Tends to follow from over-generalization ○ Once you believe events follow a particular pattern, and you think you know why: you tend to pay attention to situations that correspond to that pattern & ignore/overlook situations that conflict with it. p9 ○ Scientific safeguards against Selective Observation ~Using a research design that specifies the number & kind of observations needed ~ Conclusions are based on analysis of all the observations specified in the research design. 1.3.4 Ego involvement in understanding ○ We are personally involved in our research, & understanding has psychological significance. ○ Disproof of our understandings make us feel foolish. ○ This creates a barrier to objective further enquiry. ○ Scientific Safeguard against ego involvement ~ Testing of hypotheses in a systematic manner. ~ Making the research public enables evaluation by other scientists 1.3.5 The premature closure of inquiry ○ Tends to follow from the other errors ○ We stop inquiring before the evidence for sound conclusions is adequate. (Before our understanding is complete) ○ Scientific Safeguards ~ Doing a thorough literature review: - this reveals the scope & complexity of the topic. However: Science is an open-ended enterprise, and conclusions are constantly modified. 1.4 Norms of the scientific community ○ Norms = Rules of conduct in particular situations, that are enforced by positive & negative sanctions ○ Norms in the scientific community: 1. Universalism → Research is to be judged purely on the basis of its scientific merit (regardless of who conducted it or where it was done) 2. Organised Scepticism → All evidence should be challenged & questioned. → This ensures that research can stand up to examination. 3. Disinterestedness → Scientists must be neutral, impartial & open to unexpected observations/new ideas. → Should not be rigidly weeded to an idea or pov → Should accept, & look for, evidence that runs contrary to their views. 4. Communalism → Knowledge belongs to everyone & should be shared. → Creating scientific knowledge is a public act & the findings are public property → The way in which research was conducted must be described in detail → New knowledge is only formally accepted once it has been reviewed by other researchers & it has been made publically available in a special form & style. 5. Honesty → Scientific honesty in all research is essential. p12 ○ These norms can be in conflict, in which case precedence must be given to one over another. ○ Norms are ideals of professional conduct → but researchers are influenced by various personal factors ○ Norms of science are sometimes violated → Esp if scientists become too closely involved in agendas that go beyond the scientific field (financial/political interests) (see p14 for discussion) ○ Scientists check on each other by: - subjecting research reports to scrutiny by publishing them in academic books/journals - Scientific community criticizes these reports, regardless of the status of the author - admitting all knowledge is tentative, to be accepted only until disproved. - condemning dishonesty in research. ○ For this to work it is necessary that: - Scientists work in an environment where they have autonomy from outside control. - All research results must see the light of day (this one is problematic) - Scientists must be reflexive: Be aware of own assumptions investigate own possible prejudices. 1.5 Stages in research 1.5.1 Stage 1: defining the problem • research design or plan • research problem • literature review • theory • assumptions • hypothesis • research questions 1.5.2 Stage 2: obtaining the information • sampling • data collection 1.5.3 Stage 3: analyzing and interpreting information • describing and interpreting quantitative data • describing and interpreting qualitative data 1.5.4 Stage 4: communicating results This involves writing the research report. p16 1.6 Questions about the nature of the world and the nature of knowledge about the world ○ These is disagreement about the basic assumptions underlying research ~ More so in the social sciences than the natural sciences. ○ Ontological Assumptions = Refers to what researchers believe exists & is real Seldom questioned or examined. Concerns the primary issues researchers have to deal with, as they influence all subsequent decisions. ○ Epistemological questions → Deal with how we can know & explain something Regards the nature (structure/format) of knowledge (rather than content) Implies that we must decide what qualifies as social scientific knowledge. 1.7 Three dominant approaches to research ○ Positivist, interpretive & critical approaches. ○ These represent the conventional approaches to social science. ○ Approaches are classified according to their basic ontological & epistemological assumptions. 1.7.1 The Positivist approach A systematic way of doing research that emphasizes the importance of observable facts. View of social reality ○ Social reality → Can be discovered → can be perceived through the senses as it exists “out there”. → is independent of the “knower” ○ Human Behavior → Determined by external influences that produce particular effects under certain circumstances → Is predictable reactions, because humans are rational ○ Regularities → Social Laws → used to explain social events & relationships. . ○ Social reality reflects certain patterns, & the behavior of humans is a product of these patterns. p21 View of how to gain knowledge of social reality This conception of the nature of social reality leads to the following understanding of knowledge: - Social sciences should be studied the same way as natural sciences - Social phenomena are open to outside, empirical observation (because they exist in their own right) - All knowledge is based on facts & facts are empirically established by the senses. - It is crucial that researchers approach social reality in a neutral, value-free, detached & systematic way. - Methodological tools are developed to collect evidence that is observable (& thus measurable) - Standardized procedures are followed, ensuring a detached approach to represent social reality accurately & free from bias. - Knowledge gained can be used to predict occurrences & control events. - Knowledge is cumulative, so all knowledge of a topic can be used ○ Positivist ~ Want to give social science more powers of explanation. ~ Believe it is right to use our knowledge of causal social laws to help society progress. 1.7.2 The Interpretive approach An approach to social science that emphasizes the importance of insiders‟ viewpoints to understanding of social realities. View of social reality ○ Social reality is inherently meaningful ○ People interpret situations & so decide how to respond, THUS they attribute meaning to a situation by consciously participating in it. ○ Meaning is constructed through human interaction & defining a situation to make sense of it. ○ Meanings are generated in a social process THUS they are shared intersubjectively (between subjects) ○ Patterns & regularities in behavior ~ Emerge from the social conventions established by consciously interacting human beings. ~ from the intersubjective understanding of the meaningfulness of a situation. ○ Purpose of research → To make social reality intelligible by revealing its inherent meaningfulness. ○ Meaningful actions must be understood from within: → This requires studying how social reality is experienced, interpreted & understood ○ There is NO external social reality (separate from the consciousness of people) ○ Social reality ~ Created through the conscious actions of human beings ~ Differs fundamentally from the natural world. THUS NO basis for using the same methods as the natural sciences. View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ○ To access the meaningfulness of social reality: ~ Researchers must be sensitive to the social context in which meaning is produced. ○ Social reality must be approached from the perspective of those who construct it. THUS Value-freedom, neutrality & detachment is of little use. ○ Values ~ an integral part of social reality ○ Common sense ~ provides insights into people‟s understanding of their own situation & into how people construct & interpret their situations intuitively. ○ Research into social science: ~ Justified because it demonstrates the meaningfulness of social interaction in a particular context ~ Provides outsiders with adequate understanding of the situation to communicate with insiders. 1.7.3 The critical approach An approach to social science that emphasizes the need to uncover hidden processes and structures within society. View of social reality ○ Social Reality is multi-layered & have more dimensions than initially apparent. ○ NB to move from the way society presents itself (surface structures) to the underlying mechanisms by which social reality is maintained. ○ Underlying relationships ~ determine the real characteristics of a society ~ are the mechanisms which result in exploitation & discrimination ~ are masked by external appearances. ○ The real, exploitative nature of society is hidden by a framework constructed by institutions such as: Mass Media → Serves the interests of the wealthy & powerful → Diverts attention from problems to frivolous things → Leads us to believe the inequalities in the world is natural, & can‟t be changed → This false consciousness leads to people unconsciously reproducing the social structures that keep the problems in place ○ Exposing the illusion → exposes the underlying tensions and contradictions → Only then can the full potential of human creativity & agency be unleashed. → Creates awareness allowing people to realize they are both creators and products of social reality THUS Social reality becomes a human construction with more than one possibility ○ Once this awareness is created, the transformation of social reality becomes possible BUT While humans have the potential to change social reality through their actions, the structures of social reality enables or constrains these actions. View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ○ Believe Positivist attempts to discover objective facts is misguided because: ~ social reality cannot be taken at face value. ~ observable surface structures seldom coincide with reality.