The Governance and Politics of Social
Problems
HC 1: Europe is a continent of democracies
Distinctive democratic systems, similar problems
1. Differences and similarities political science and the study of governance and public
administration
2. Political systems and systems of government: in theory and in practice
3. Manners in which common challenges are faced
Comparative approach:
- Interconnectedness and distinctiveness of European democracies
- Example: 2018 refugees Italy and Spain
Populist revolt against representative democracy:
Representative democracy: People do not directly influence policies; you elect
representatives who elect for you
Liberal democracy: power of government is constrained by constitutional rules which are
upheld by an independent judicial system
Does the moderate center hold?
- Post-war era showed general consensus among political elites in many countries,
supporting free market economic policies and commitment to regional integration
(EU)
- Critics characterized it as a ‘party cartel’, where principled opposition became
replaced with consensus and cooperation among the major parties
- Not anymore: significant differences emerged between political parties and voter
groups on issues such as immigration, European integration, free market and climate
change
- Often portrayed negatively when it comes to the emergence of so-called ‘populist’
parties that challenge the traditional centrist parties
Mudde: populism is a symptom of a democratic deficit, not a cause
- Key problem: many people still support central idea of liberal democracy, but distrust
established parties and politicians
- Nevertheless, people are ambivalent and more centrist/moderate than often
assumed
Populist frame the elite and traditional institutions as ‘enemy of the people’
- Meaningful party competition and can increase political participation and trust
- Portraying opponents as ‘enemies’ undermines democratic values and practices=
Societal polarization
- Causes: the global economic crises, increasing inequality within and between nations
accompanying anti-immigrant sentiments
1
,Immigration: reduces shared cultural norms and communication, forcing European societies
to deal with social dilemmas of increasing diversity: multiculturalism versus or forced
assimilation within fuel a politics where ethnic differences
Populist support:
- Next to traditional lower middle-class support for far-right politics now also strong
support growing from working-class, blue-collar voters
- Lower- and middle-class economic prosperity and social security declined with neo-
liberal austerity and welfare state retrenchment policies
- Their bargaining power is shrinking due to outsourcing to cheap labor countries,
automation/robotics, competition with labor migrants.
European democracies are characterized by their strong welfare sates: compared to many
other parts of the world, European governments tend to engage in relatively high levels of
economic redistribution and typically provide extensive social protection supports such as
pensions and unemployment assistance to their population
Economic left:
- State management
- Economic redistribution
- Welfare state
- Collectivism
Populism:
- Anti-establishment
- Strong leader/popular will
- Nationalism
- Traditional view
Cosmopolitan liberalism:
- Pluralistic democracy
- Tolerant multiculturalism
- Multilateralism
- Progressive values
Economic right:
- Free market
- Deregulation
- Low taxation
- Individualism
Populism is a push-back
- Anti-establishment
- Anti-experts / intellectualism
- Pro ‘common sense’
- Simple solutions
- Out-group derogation
Political polarization: ideological and affective polarization: The left is suspicious of the
right, and the right is suspicious of the left
2
,Populism and new media:
- New media creates an increasingly individualized civic environment in which public
engagement is a personal experience, not a collective affair
- This results in a blurring of private and public sphere, as well as obfuscate
professional and private life
- Filter bubbles and selective exposure insulates people from opinion-adverse
information
Populism and polarization:
- Populist question the motives and morality of politicians, not their policies
- Too much polarization: no acceptance of elite cooperation and political compromise
Political systems:
- Parliamentary
Separate popular mandate
Government depends on legislative majority to exist and head of state is not
popularly elected for a fixed term
- Presidential
Popularly elected executive
Legislature: separate mandate
Strict separation of powers: checks and balances, to prevent one branch of
government becoming too powerful
Fixed terms: executive (president) can be impeached for misconduct (high crimes or
misdemeanors)
No parliamentary responsibility of executive
Government power is limited by constitution guaranteeing citizens’ rights
HC 2: Representation and voting
Kleroterion: used to select citizens to public office and jury service in ancient. Random
selection -> equal chance
Models of representation:
- Trusteeship:
Experts in charge
Who act in the best interest of constituents without necessarily consulting them
Know what is best, and know how we can have a stable society
- Delegation
Have to consult, needs input from voters, before deciding
Little or no capacity to exercise his or her own judgement or preferences
Only mirror the views of their constituents
- Mandate
Representatives adhere to the policy prescriptions which got them elected to power
Ethnicity, sociological view etc.
- Resemblance
Representatives need to typify characteristics, of the larger group to which they
belong to represent the interest of the group
Women can better representant women than men
3
, Democratic institutions is no guarantee for democracy:
- Those in power can use ‘democratic procedures’ to legitimize abuses of power
- Within democratic institutions, too, it is possible for actors to behave in an
undemocratic manner
Opposition is crucial: countervailing power
- Elitist argue that without counter-force, power always concentrates
➔ Lose democracy
- That is why democracy needs opposition: counter-power to balance the
concentrations power at the helm and provide a check (and an alternative) to those
in power
- An actual democratic system makes this counter-force possible by a legitimate
political opposition
Functions of constitutions:
- Constitutions guarantee political and economic freedoms of citizens (against
arbitrary state action)
- Constitutions restrict powers (regulates mutual relationship between legislative and
executive)
- Constitutions limit the duration of the execution of power
- Constitutions guarantee regular, free, fair and competitive elections of
representatives of the people on the basis of universal and equal suffrage
- Constitutions compel government to be accountable to the people (the parliament)
Basic features elections:
- The electoral formula: how votes are counted
- The district magnitude: the number of seats per district
- The ballot structure: how voters can express their choices, for a list of candidate, to
both or ranking them
- The electoral threshold: the minimum votes needed by a party to secure
representation
Majoritarian system:
Plurality and absolute majority
- Identify clear winner
- Dan weet je precies wie er weg moet wanneer je het niet eens bent met de regering
- Everybody can be a candidate
- Candidate with the most votes is elected
- No minimum number of votes that you have to have
- A party has as many seats as candidates elected
- Don’t need majority, but plurality
- Candidate can win with 30% of the votes
- Wasted votes
- Winner takes it all
- 2nd round: when nobody gets 50%
Avoid multiple elections rounds while ensuring the winning candidate has wide support
4
Problems
HC 1: Europe is a continent of democracies
Distinctive democratic systems, similar problems
1. Differences and similarities political science and the study of governance and public
administration
2. Political systems and systems of government: in theory and in practice
3. Manners in which common challenges are faced
Comparative approach:
- Interconnectedness and distinctiveness of European democracies
- Example: 2018 refugees Italy and Spain
Populist revolt against representative democracy:
Representative democracy: People do not directly influence policies; you elect
representatives who elect for you
Liberal democracy: power of government is constrained by constitutional rules which are
upheld by an independent judicial system
Does the moderate center hold?
- Post-war era showed general consensus among political elites in many countries,
supporting free market economic policies and commitment to regional integration
(EU)
- Critics characterized it as a ‘party cartel’, where principled opposition became
replaced with consensus and cooperation among the major parties
- Not anymore: significant differences emerged between political parties and voter
groups on issues such as immigration, European integration, free market and climate
change
- Often portrayed negatively when it comes to the emergence of so-called ‘populist’
parties that challenge the traditional centrist parties
Mudde: populism is a symptom of a democratic deficit, not a cause
- Key problem: many people still support central idea of liberal democracy, but distrust
established parties and politicians
- Nevertheless, people are ambivalent and more centrist/moderate than often
assumed
Populist frame the elite and traditional institutions as ‘enemy of the people’
- Meaningful party competition and can increase political participation and trust
- Portraying opponents as ‘enemies’ undermines democratic values and practices=
Societal polarization
- Causes: the global economic crises, increasing inequality within and between nations
accompanying anti-immigrant sentiments
1
,Immigration: reduces shared cultural norms and communication, forcing European societies
to deal with social dilemmas of increasing diversity: multiculturalism versus or forced
assimilation within fuel a politics where ethnic differences
Populist support:
- Next to traditional lower middle-class support for far-right politics now also strong
support growing from working-class, blue-collar voters
- Lower- and middle-class economic prosperity and social security declined with neo-
liberal austerity and welfare state retrenchment policies
- Their bargaining power is shrinking due to outsourcing to cheap labor countries,
automation/robotics, competition with labor migrants.
European democracies are characterized by their strong welfare sates: compared to many
other parts of the world, European governments tend to engage in relatively high levels of
economic redistribution and typically provide extensive social protection supports such as
pensions and unemployment assistance to their population
Economic left:
- State management
- Economic redistribution
- Welfare state
- Collectivism
Populism:
- Anti-establishment
- Strong leader/popular will
- Nationalism
- Traditional view
Cosmopolitan liberalism:
- Pluralistic democracy
- Tolerant multiculturalism
- Multilateralism
- Progressive values
Economic right:
- Free market
- Deregulation
- Low taxation
- Individualism
Populism is a push-back
- Anti-establishment
- Anti-experts / intellectualism
- Pro ‘common sense’
- Simple solutions
- Out-group derogation
Political polarization: ideological and affective polarization: The left is suspicious of the
right, and the right is suspicious of the left
2
,Populism and new media:
- New media creates an increasingly individualized civic environment in which public
engagement is a personal experience, not a collective affair
- This results in a blurring of private and public sphere, as well as obfuscate
professional and private life
- Filter bubbles and selective exposure insulates people from opinion-adverse
information
Populism and polarization:
- Populist question the motives and morality of politicians, not their policies
- Too much polarization: no acceptance of elite cooperation and political compromise
Political systems:
- Parliamentary
Separate popular mandate
Government depends on legislative majority to exist and head of state is not
popularly elected for a fixed term
- Presidential
Popularly elected executive
Legislature: separate mandate
Strict separation of powers: checks and balances, to prevent one branch of
government becoming too powerful
Fixed terms: executive (president) can be impeached for misconduct (high crimes or
misdemeanors)
No parliamentary responsibility of executive
Government power is limited by constitution guaranteeing citizens’ rights
HC 2: Representation and voting
Kleroterion: used to select citizens to public office and jury service in ancient. Random
selection -> equal chance
Models of representation:
- Trusteeship:
Experts in charge
Who act in the best interest of constituents without necessarily consulting them
Know what is best, and know how we can have a stable society
- Delegation
Have to consult, needs input from voters, before deciding
Little or no capacity to exercise his or her own judgement or preferences
Only mirror the views of their constituents
- Mandate
Representatives adhere to the policy prescriptions which got them elected to power
Ethnicity, sociological view etc.
- Resemblance
Representatives need to typify characteristics, of the larger group to which they
belong to represent the interest of the group
Women can better representant women than men
3
, Democratic institutions is no guarantee for democracy:
- Those in power can use ‘democratic procedures’ to legitimize abuses of power
- Within democratic institutions, too, it is possible for actors to behave in an
undemocratic manner
Opposition is crucial: countervailing power
- Elitist argue that without counter-force, power always concentrates
➔ Lose democracy
- That is why democracy needs opposition: counter-power to balance the
concentrations power at the helm and provide a check (and an alternative) to those
in power
- An actual democratic system makes this counter-force possible by a legitimate
political opposition
Functions of constitutions:
- Constitutions guarantee political and economic freedoms of citizens (against
arbitrary state action)
- Constitutions restrict powers (regulates mutual relationship between legislative and
executive)
- Constitutions limit the duration of the execution of power
- Constitutions guarantee regular, free, fair and competitive elections of
representatives of the people on the basis of universal and equal suffrage
- Constitutions compel government to be accountable to the people (the parliament)
Basic features elections:
- The electoral formula: how votes are counted
- The district magnitude: the number of seats per district
- The ballot structure: how voters can express their choices, for a list of candidate, to
both or ranking them
- The electoral threshold: the minimum votes needed by a party to secure
representation
Majoritarian system:
Plurality and absolute majority
- Identify clear winner
- Dan weet je precies wie er weg moet wanneer je het niet eens bent met de regering
- Everybody can be a candidate
- Candidate with the most votes is elected
- No minimum number of votes that you have to have
- A party has as many seats as candidates elected
- Don’t need majority, but plurality
- Candidate can win with 30% of the votes
- Wasted votes
- Winner takes it all
- 2nd round: when nobody gets 50%
Avoid multiple elections rounds while ensuring the winning candidate has wide support
4
