Block 3 - History and Methods of Psychology
Problem 1 - From Antiquity to Modernity.
Overview of perspectives about knowledge
Empiricism
• Knowledge arises through external processes (perception and sensory perceptions) and is
obtained by gaining experiences.
• Most empiricists argue that acquiring knowledge is a combination of cognitive and external
processes but attach more value to the latter.
• Hard-core empiricists argue that cognitive processes are not necessary to obtain
knowledge.
Nativism:
• Human traits can be explained by heredity.
• Knowledge is innate and therefore present from birth.
• Many nativists are hard-core rationalists.
Rationalism
• Knowledge arises through internal (thinking) processes (logical reasoning).
• Some rationalists argue that knowledge comes from reasoning about sensory or perceptual
perceptions.
• Hard-core rationalists argue that perception is not necessary to obtain knowledge.
Monism
• There is only one form of reality, either physical (body) or mental (mind).
• Everything can be explained from either matter (materialism) or ideas (idealism).
Idealism
• States that truth consists of ideas (not physical).
• Everything can be explained by mental processes in the mind
• Idealist is also a monist
, PLATO
Nativist: knowledge is innate
Rationalist: Mental operations are necessary to find the truth. Forms (real knowledge) are achieved
through rational thinking.
Idealist: Ultimate reality consists of ideas (forms) instead of the world we see through sensory
perception.
Dualist: he distinguished between body and mind. The mind / soul contains real knowledge and is
immortal, the physical body is imperfect and mortal.
Two periods can be distinguished in Plato's history:
• First period: writing down the method and thoughts of his teacher Socrates.
• Second period: using a combination of the Socratic method (knowledge can be obtained
through reasoning) and Pythagorean philosophy (sensory perceptions influence reasoning
but are not necessary).
The two types of Worlds
• Intelligible world (Third realm) (world of knowledge): the world of knowledge consists of ideas
/ forms (real knowledge). These are universals known by reason. These shapes arise from
reasoning from previous knowledge.
• World of appearances (world of opinion): the world of opinion is made up of changing
particulars of the material world, conveyed by our senses. However, our senses are not
accurate, so the body prevents us from gaining knowledge. (Observable copies)
The definition of knowledge (truth) according to Plato
Believed that the truth lay in the realm of being (world of forms and ideas) (eternally and unchangeably
true)
1) Must be true in all times and all places absolutely.
2) Knowledge had to be rationally justifiable. (access knowledge through logical reasoning) It
must be substantiated and convince others that it is correct
Believed that physical world was always in a state of becoming (what we perceive through our
senses)
Knowledge stems from one’s immortal soul (innate) ⇒ nativism
We access this knowledge through logical reasoning
Observation/perception = not a way to enquire knowledge à tainted by individual differences and
cultural preconceptions
Mathematics
Pythagoreans; was transformed by it (Seen as a notion of proof)
Theory of Forms
,According to Plato, everything in the empirical world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that
exists in the abstract
Sensory perception is the result of the interaction between pure form and matter.
Because matter changes continuously, the result of this interaction is less perfect than the pure form.
(1) Plato believed that knowledge is not obtained through perception, but through forms.
(2) Form; perfect absolute truth, we cannot see it
The Simile of the sun
• The form of the good is in the intelligible world of forms what the sun is to the physical world
of objects.
• Plato states that the sun illuminate’s objects so that people can see them.
• Because this light is necessary to be able to see objects (besides the eyes and the object),
the light of the sun equals good.
The metaphor of the line;
There is a hierarchy of knowledge, this provides a way to visualize a distinction between different
states of minds + which different states of minds are more reliable than others
There is an absolute form of knowledge
• The length represents amount of cognition (long length represents high cognition)
World of Appearances = beliefs without proof à based on perception. (what we can access)
§ Imagining – cognition lowest level (Only the imagination of something, not physically seeing
it with one’s eyes.) (shortest line)
§ Belief – second lowest cognitive – everything that is
visually acceptable
Visible things to the eye, makes probable predictions
upon observing visible things
When you see a house, you know that there is a house,
this is the form of knowledge that you can access
Intelligible world = Only able to access through REASONING,
§ Thinking – forms through images
Ideas, specifically numbers (geometry) can assume hypothesis while making use of likeliness,
and always moving towards final conclusion
§ Knowledge – highest cognition – knowledge is obtained through understanding abstract
forms, but only through rational thinking
One you have achieved the highest level of knowledge, it is difficult to go backwards in the hierarchy
One cannot teach others on how to gain the perfect “true” form of knowledge, one has to access it
themselves (INDIVIDUALLY) à through their own rationalisation
Mathematics = incomplete. – Changing something, changes everything
, The Allegory of the Cave: The Prison of Culture.
§ Cave = symbol of the human condition.
§ The soul is a victim to the conventional beliefs of the society in which it lives.
§ Represents humans who confuse the shadows of sense experiences with reality
§ The escaped prisoner sees the real objects responsible for the shadows in the cave, thus
embraces true knowledge
§ After this experiences, an effort is made to steer others away from ignorance & towards
wisdom
Optimism; lies in the promise, that, with effort we can be liberated from ignorance and illusion
§ With philosophy and right education, we can escape from the cave of opinion and
Appearances to the realm of knowledge and Reality.
§ We may know the truth and it shall set us free
Pessimism; lies in the difficulty and dangers of the path upward.
§ Have to get rid of current reality, to face a new one
§ Plato says, it is not for everyone.
§ It is only for an elite few whose character can bear its burdens.
§ Most people do not want to be free
The Ladder of Love: Being Drawn to the Goo
§ Describes the love of Beauty
§ Ladder = metaphor for the climb a lover makes from physical attraction to actual
contemplation of the Form of Beauty itself.
§ The love of one beautiful person is an invitation to step on ladder, that if we follow upwards
with thoughtfulness and dignity will lead us to an appreciation of bigger things
§ He does not want one to be stuck on that part of the ladder, we start off with the love of the
physicality of the person to then move to a love of beauty of people in general
§ We move onwards to an intellectual form of beauty
§ When you have come this skilful at perceiving this sort of beauty, you are then able to
appreciate a beautiful mind, even in an ugly body.
• Physical love; lust, sexual love
• General love; love for everybody and every soul
• Develop a love for art and philosophy (highest ladder)
Learning as Remembering: Knowledge Is Within Us. (Innate)
Reincarnation; Souls go through cycles of reincarnations
All knowledge is innate and can be attained through introspection (searching of one’s inner
experiences)
Sensory experiences can only remind one what is already known
One is carried by its soul, that has vision of the forms and its lives in previous incarnations
Problem 1 - From Antiquity to Modernity.
Overview of perspectives about knowledge
Empiricism
• Knowledge arises through external processes (perception and sensory perceptions) and is
obtained by gaining experiences.
• Most empiricists argue that acquiring knowledge is a combination of cognitive and external
processes but attach more value to the latter.
• Hard-core empiricists argue that cognitive processes are not necessary to obtain
knowledge.
Nativism:
• Human traits can be explained by heredity.
• Knowledge is innate and therefore present from birth.
• Many nativists are hard-core rationalists.
Rationalism
• Knowledge arises through internal (thinking) processes (logical reasoning).
• Some rationalists argue that knowledge comes from reasoning about sensory or perceptual
perceptions.
• Hard-core rationalists argue that perception is not necessary to obtain knowledge.
Monism
• There is only one form of reality, either physical (body) or mental (mind).
• Everything can be explained from either matter (materialism) or ideas (idealism).
Idealism
• States that truth consists of ideas (not physical).
• Everything can be explained by mental processes in the mind
• Idealist is also a monist
, PLATO
Nativist: knowledge is innate
Rationalist: Mental operations are necessary to find the truth. Forms (real knowledge) are achieved
through rational thinking.
Idealist: Ultimate reality consists of ideas (forms) instead of the world we see through sensory
perception.
Dualist: he distinguished between body and mind. The mind / soul contains real knowledge and is
immortal, the physical body is imperfect and mortal.
Two periods can be distinguished in Plato's history:
• First period: writing down the method and thoughts of his teacher Socrates.
• Second period: using a combination of the Socratic method (knowledge can be obtained
through reasoning) and Pythagorean philosophy (sensory perceptions influence reasoning
but are not necessary).
The two types of Worlds
• Intelligible world (Third realm) (world of knowledge): the world of knowledge consists of ideas
/ forms (real knowledge). These are universals known by reason. These shapes arise from
reasoning from previous knowledge.
• World of appearances (world of opinion): the world of opinion is made up of changing
particulars of the material world, conveyed by our senses. However, our senses are not
accurate, so the body prevents us from gaining knowledge. (Observable copies)
The definition of knowledge (truth) according to Plato
Believed that the truth lay in the realm of being (world of forms and ideas) (eternally and unchangeably
true)
1) Must be true in all times and all places absolutely.
2) Knowledge had to be rationally justifiable. (access knowledge through logical reasoning) It
must be substantiated and convince others that it is correct
Believed that physical world was always in a state of becoming (what we perceive through our
senses)
Knowledge stems from one’s immortal soul (innate) ⇒ nativism
We access this knowledge through logical reasoning
Observation/perception = not a way to enquire knowledge à tainted by individual differences and
cultural preconceptions
Mathematics
Pythagoreans; was transformed by it (Seen as a notion of proof)
Theory of Forms
,According to Plato, everything in the empirical world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that
exists in the abstract
Sensory perception is the result of the interaction between pure form and matter.
Because matter changes continuously, the result of this interaction is less perfect than the pure form.
(1) Plato believed that knowledge is not obtained through perception, but through forms.
(2) Form; perfect absolute truth, we cannot see it
The Simile of the sun
• The form of the good is in the intelligible world of forms what the sun is to the physical world
of objects.
• Plato states that the sun illuminate’s objects so that people can see them.
• Because this light is necessary to be able to see objects (besides the eyes and the object),
the light of the sun equals good.
The metaphor of the line;
There is a hierarchy of knowledge, this provides a way to visualize a distinction between different
states of minds + which different states of minds are more reliable than others
There is an absolute form of knowledge
• The length represents amount of cognition (long length represents high cognition)
World of Appearances = beliefs without proof à based on perception. (what we can access)
§ Imagining – cognition lowest level (Only the imagination of something, not physically seeing
it with one’s eyes.) (shortest line)
§ Belief – second lowest cognitive – everything that is
visually acceptable
Visible things to the eye, makes probable predictions
upon observing visible things
When you see a house, you know that there is a house,
this is the form of knowledge that you can access
Intelligible world = Only able to access through REASONING,
§ Thinking – forms through images
Ideas, specifically numbers (geometry) can assume hypothesis while making use of likeliness,
and always moving towards final conclusion
§ Knowledge – highest cognition – knowledge is obtained through understanding abstract
forms, but only through rational thinking
One you have achieved the highest level of knowledge, it is difficult to go backwards in the hierarchy
One cannot teach others on how to gain the perfect “true” form of knowledge, one has to access it
themselves (INDIVIDUALLY) à through their own rationalisation
Mathematics = incomplete. – Changing something, changes everything
, The Allegory of the Cave: The Prison of Culture.
§ Cave = symbol of the human condition.
§ The soul is a victim to the conventional beliefs of the society in which it lives.
§ Represents humans who confuse the shadows of sense experiences with reality
§ The escaped prisoner sees the real objects responsible for the shadows in the cave, thus
embraces true knowledge
§ After this experiences, an effort is made to steer others away from ignorance & towards
wisdom
Optimism; lies in the promise, that, with effort we can be liberated from ignorance and illusion
§ With philosophy and right education, we can escape from the cave of opinion and
Appearances to the realm of knowledge and Reality.
§ We may know the truth and it shall set us free
Pessimism; lies in the difficulty and dangers of the path upward.
§ Have to get rid of current reality, to face a new one
§ Plato says, it is not for everyone.
§ It is only for an elite few whose character can bear its burdens.
§ Most people do not want to be free
The Ladder of Love: Being Drawn to the Goo
§ Describes the love of Beauty
§ Ladder = metaphor for the climb a lover makes from physical attraction to actual
contemplation of the Form of Beauty itself.
§ The love of one beautiful person is an invitation to step on ladder, that if we follow upwards
with thoughtfulness and dignity will lead us to an appreciation of bigger things
§ He does not want one to be stuck on that part of the ladder, we start off with the love of the
physicality of the person to then move to a love of beauty of people in general
§ We move onwards to an intellectual form of beauty
§ When you have come this skilful at perceiving this sort of beauty, you are then able to
appreciate a beautiful mind, even in an ugly body.
• Physical love; lust, sexual love
• General love; love for everybody and every soul
• Develop a love for art and philosophy (highest ladder)
Learning as Remembering: Knowledge Is Within Us. (Innate)
Reincarnation; Souls go through cycles of reincarnations
All knowledge is innate and can be attained through introspection (searching of one’s inner
experiences)
Sensory experiences can only remind one what is already known
One is carried by its soul, that has vision of the forms and its lives in previous incarnations
