PYC3703 – Cognitive Psychology -
Dialectic – a developmental process whereby an idea evolves over time:
Thesis – a statement of believe
Antithesis – a statement that counters a previous statement
Debate between thesis and antithesis leads to a synthesis of both views (nature + nurture debate)
Philosophy – Seeks to understand general nature, in part through introspection
Physiology – Scientific study of life-sustaining functions, primarily through empirical methods (observation based)
Rationalist – the route to knowledge is through logical analysis and reason contemplation / introspection
Empiricist – We acquire knowledge via empirical evidence, through experience and observation
1. Rene Descartes – Rationalist
2. John Locke – Empiricist – “Tabula Rosa” – blank slate – life and experiences write knowledge on us, we have
no innate ideas
3. Immanuel Kant – dialectically synthesised the views of Descartes and Locke
STRUCTURALISM
Understand the structure of the mind and it’s perceptions by analysing the perceptions into their constituent
components
Perception of a flower: colour, geometric forms, size
The method of structuralism = introspection
The focus of structuralism = elementary structures of sensation
FUNCTIONALISM
Focus is on the process of thought, not the contents
The how and why
PRAGMATISM
Knowledge is validated by its usefulness, what you can do with it
ASSOCIATIONISM
Examines how events / ideas become associated with one another in the mind to result in learning
Contiguity = associating things that tend to occur together at the same time
Herman Ebbinghaus – Associationist – studied own mental processes
Counted his errors and recorded response times
Studied how people learnt through rehearsal
Edward Lee Thorndike – role of satisfaction key to forming associations
“LAW OF EFFECT” – Stimulus will produce certain response over time, if organism is rewarded for that
response. Satisfaction serves as stimulus for further actions
BEHAVIOURISM – extreme form of associationism
Relation between observable behaviour and environmental stimuli. Focus on overt observable behaviour
Pavlov – Classic conditioning learning – dog + bell + saliva – dog had no control
Effective conditioning requires contingency – presentation of food contingent on presentation of conditioned
stimulus
Radical behaviourist - John Watson & BF Skinner
Skinner – believed in OPERANT CONDITIONING – behaviour contingent on absence / reinforcement of reward
or punishment – this explains all behaviour
,GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY – critic of behaviourism
We cannot fully understand behaviour by breaking down phenomena into smaller parts – we must view them
as organised, structured wholes
Gestalts – study insights – try to understand unobservable mental events
“The whole differs from the sum of its parts” – the perception of a flower needs the whole experience, not just
description of colour, form, size.
ASSUMPTION
A statement / fact whose truth is presupposed
When studying the mind / cognition – need to make assumptions about how the mind works and need a
starting point
Freud – mind was conceptualised as a steam engine / hydraulic system with pressure relief valves
Cognitive psychology – assumption of mind as a computer / info. Processing system
Cognitive system has a level of software (mind) and hardware (brain)
PDP APPROACH – Parallel Distributed Processing Networks / The connectionist / neural network – the key to
knowledge representation lies in the connections among various nodes
Cognitive Psychologists – approach based on 2 assumptions
1. The mind can be conceptualised as an information processing system
2. Internal mental activities exist and can be studied systematically using scientific approach. A methodological
assumption based on idea that
- Experimental procedures
- Computer simulation can be used to study the mind scientifically
- Mathematical modelling
- Modern technological instruments
PLATO’S THEORY OF FORMS
Aristotle - Empiricist – knowledge depends on experience
Plato – Rationalist - Knowledge and truth should be investigated by reasoning and logical deduction. The true nature
of reality does not reside in observable phenomena, but in abstract forms that underlie the phenomena.
What we perceive = shadows
The concept of ‘beauty’ provides a standard against which objects can be judged.
The standard AKA the FORM / IDEAL
Plato’s assumption – the meaning of a concept resides in the abstract form.
The actual example only points to the ideal, they ‘stand in’ for it
True forms are only imperfect reflections
COGNITIVISM – a synthesis of behaviourism (focus on observable) and gestaltism (internal mental processes)
A belief that much of human behaviour can be understood in terms of how people think
,George Miller – the magic number 7
- People can remember 7 bits of info.
- Channel capacity – the upper limit with which an observer can match a response to info given – remembering
7 number sequentially – channel capacity = 7. Short term memory
Jerry Fodor – concept of modularity of mind
Mind has distinct modules to deal with linguistics and info.
Processes used in one domain operate independently of processes in other domains.
PHRENOLOGY – Measurement of human skull
Mental cartography (maps) gave rise to idea of modularity.
GOALS OF RESEARCH
1. DATA GATHERING
2. STATISTICAL MEANS OF ANALYSING THE DATA - allow a formation of a description of the phenomena . To move beyond
description – leap from observation to inference (explain)
3. START WITH A THEORY – an organised body of general explanatory principles regarding a phenomena – based on
observation
4. A HYPOTHESIS IS GENERATED - a tentative proposal regarding expected empirical consequences of theory
5. HYPOTHESIS TESTED THROUGH EXPERIMENTATION and findings subjected to statistical analysis to determine their
statistical significance
RESEARCH METHODS
1. CONTROLLED LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
2. PSYCHOBIOLOGY RESEARCH
3. SELF-REPORTS
4. CASE STUDIES
5. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
6. COMPUTER SIMULATIONS (pc to simulate / imitate human cognitive performance) AND AI (PC to demonstrate intelligent
cognitive performance, brute force, does not represent how humans functions, but plays at highest possible level)
EXPERIMENTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Lab setting – 2 variables
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – individually manipulated while other aspects are held constant (Treatment)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE – outcome responses, values depend on how independent variable influences participants
Manipulate independent variable to observe effect on dependent variable
CONTROL VARIABLE - controls for effects of irrelevant variables which are held constant
CONFOUNDING VARIABLE - Irrelevant variables left uncontrolled which can influence results (time of day)
- Sample used must be representative and random – from population of interest
- Rigorous control over experimental conditions necessary
- Participants randomly assigned to treatment and control – allowing inference to be made of the effects of the
independent variable (treatment) on the dependent variable (outcome )
Psychologists who study cognitive processes with reaction time use – SUBTRACTION METHOD
Estimating the time a cognitive process takes by subtracting the amount of time information processing takes with the
process, from the time without the process
If outcomes in the treatment condition show statistically significant difference from outcomes in the control – one can
infer a causal link between independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable involve
Characteristics of the situation (presence vs. absence of stimuli)
Characteristics of the task ( reading vs. listening)
Characteristics of the participants (age diff, education) – not easily manipulated
CORRELATION – A statistical relationship between 2 or more attributes – expressed through a correlation coefficient called
PEARSON’S R
, PEARSON’S R = -1.00 (negative correlation) to +1.00
It describes the strength of a relationship. The closer to +1 –the stronger the relationship between the variables
A POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP – as one variable increases (vocab size) another variable increases (reading)
A NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP – one variable increases (fatigue) another variable decreases (alertness)
If the correlation coefficient = 0 then there is no relationship between the variables.
PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL RESEARCH - relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures
3 techniques
1. POSTMORTEM
2. STUDYING IMAGES showing structures of / activities in the brain of individual known to have cognitive defect
3. OBTAINING INFO. ABOUT CEREBRAL PROCESSES during normal performance of cognitive activity
- IN VIVO – while alive – studies of individuals with known defects
- Studying cerebral activity in animals – mapping neural activity
UNDERLYING THEMES IN THE STUDY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
NATURE VS. NURTURE
Thesis / Antithesis: which is more influential in human cognition, human characteristics (nature) or environment
(nurture)
Synthesis: How an impoverished environment adversely affects someone whose genes otherwise might have led to
success
RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM
Thesis/Antithesis: How do we discover truth about ourselves / world, logical reasoning (rationalism) or observing and
testing (empiricism)
Synthesis: How can we combine empirical methods to learn the most we can about cognitive processes
STRUCTURES VS. PROCESSES
Thesis / Antithesis: contents, attributes, products of the mind or processes of thinking?
Synthesis: How do mental processes operate on mental structures
DOMAIN GENERALITY VS. DOMAIN SPECIFICITY
Thesis / Antithesis: Are processes limited to a single domain or generally across a variety of domains. Do observations
in one domain apply to all, or only the specific domain in which they are observed
Synthesis: Which processes are domain general and which are domain specific
VALIDITY OF CAUSAL INFERENCES VS. ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY (the degree to which particular findings in one
environmental context may be considered relevant outside the context)
Thesis / Antithesis: Study cognition using highly controlled experiments that increase probability of valid inferences of
causality or use naturalistic techniques which increase the likelihood of getting ecologically valid findings
Synthesis: How can a variety of methods be combined (lab + naturalistic) that converge on findings that hold up
APPLIED VS. BASIC RESEARCH
Thesis / Antithesis: Research into fundamental cognitive processes or study ways in which to help people use cognition
effectively
Synthesis: Combine the 2 dialectically so that basic leads to applied which lead to basic
BIOLOGICAL VS BEHAVIORAL
Thesis / Antithesis: Study the brain while its functioning or study people’s behaviour in cognitive tasks?
Synthesis: How to synthesis the methods so that we understand cognitive phenomena at multiple levels of analysis
Dialectic – a developmental process whereby an idea evolves over time:
Thesis – a statement of believe
Antithesis – a statement that counters a previous statement
Debate between thesis and antithesis leads to a synthesis of both views (nature + nurture debate)
Philosophy – Seeks to understand general nature, in part through introspection
Physiology – Scientific study of life-sustaining functions, primarily through empirical methods (observation based)
Rationalist – the route to knowledge is through logical analysis and reason contemplation / introspection
Empiricist – We acquire knowledge via empirical evidence, through experience and observation
1. Rene Descartes – Rationalist
2. John Locke – Empiricist – “Tabula Rosa” – blank slate – life and experiences write knowledge on us, we have
no innate ideas
3. Immanuel Kant – dialectically synthesised the views of Descartes and Locke
STRUCTURALISM
Understand the structure of the mind and it’s perceptions by analysing the perceptions into their constituent
components
Perception of a flower: colour, geometric forms, size
The method of structuralism = introspection
The focus of structuralism = elementary structures of sensation
FUNCTIONALISM
Focus is on the process of thought, not the contents
The how and why
PRAGMATISM
Knowledge is validated by its usefulness, what you can do with it
ASSOCIATIONISM
Examines how events / ideas become associated with one another in the mind to result in learning
Contiguity = associating things that tend to occur together at the same time
Herman Ebbinghaus – Associationist – studied own mental processes
Counted his errors and recorded response times
Studied how people learnt through rehearsal
Edward Lee Thorndike – role of satisfaction key to forming associations
“LAW OF EFFECT” – Stimulus will produce certain response over time, if organism is rewarded for that
response. Satisfaction serves as stimulus for further actions
BEHAVIOURISM – extreme form of associationism
Relation between observable behaviour and environmental stimuli. Focus on overt observable behaviour
Pavlov – Classic conditioning learning – dog + bell + saliva – dog had no control
Effective conditioning requires contingency – presentation of food contingent on presentation of conditioned
stimulus
Radical behaviourist - John Watson & BF Skinner
Skinner – believed in OPERANT CONDITIONING – behaviour contingent on absence / reinforcement of reward
or punishment – this explains all behaviour
,GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY – critic of behaviourism
We cannot fully understand behaviour by breaking down phenomena into smaller parts – we must view them
as organised, structured wholes
Gestalts – study insights – try to understand unobservable mental events
“The whole differs from the sum of its parts” – the perception of a flower needs the whole experience, not just
description of colour, form, size.
ASSUMPTION
A statement / fact whose truth is presupposed
When studying the mind / cognition – need to make assumptions about how the mind works and need a
starting point
Freud – mind was conceptualised as a steam engine / hydraulic system with pressure relief valves
Cognitive psychology – assumption of mind as a computer / info. Processing system
Cognitive system has a level of software (mind) and hardware (brain)
PDP APPROACH – Parallel Distributed Processing Networks / The connectionist / neural network – the key to
knowledge representation lies in the connections among various nodes
Cognitive Psychologists – approach based on 2 assumptions
1. The mind can be conceptualised as an information processing system
2. Internal mental activities exist and can be studied systematically using scientific approach. A methodological
assumption based on idea that
- Experimental procedures
- Computer simulation can be used to study the mind scientifically
- Mathematical modelling
- Modern technological instruments
PLATO’S THEORY OF FORMS
Aristotle - Empiricist – knowledge depends on experience
Plato – Rationalist - Knowledge and truth should be investigated by reasoning and logical deduction. The true nature
of reality does not reside in observable phenomena, but in abstract forms that underlie the phenomena.
What we perceive = shadows
The concept of ‘beauty’ provides a standard against which objects can be judged.
The standard AKA the FORM / IDEAL
Plato’s assumption – the meaning of a concept resides in the abstract form.
The actual example only points to the ideal, they ‘stand in’ for it
True forms are only imperfect reflections
COGNITIVISM – a synthesis of behaviourism (focus on observable) and gestaltism (internal mental processes)
A belief that much of human behaviour can be understood in terms of how people think
,George Miller – the magic number 7
- People can remember 7 bits of info.
- Channel capacity – the upper limit with which an observer can match a response to info given – remembering
7 number sequentially – channel capacity = 7. Short term memory
Jerry Fodor – concept of modularity of mind
Mind has distinct modules to deal with linguistics and info.
Processes used in one domain operate independently of processes in other domains.
PHRENOLOGY – Measurement of human skull
Mental cartography (maps) gave rise to idea of modularity.
GOALS OF RESEARCH
1. DATA GATHERING
2. STATISTICAL MEANS OF ANALYSING THE DATA - allow a formation of a description of the phenomena . To move beyond
description – leap from observation to inference (explain)
3. START WITH A THEORY – an organised body of general explanatory principles regarding a phenomena – based on
observation
4. A HYPOTHESIS IS GENERATED - a tentative proposal regarding expected empirical consequences of theory
5. HYPOTHESIS TESTED THROUGH EXPERIMENTATION and findings subjected to statistical analysis to determine their
statistical significance
RESEARCH METHODS
1. CONTROLLED LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
2. PSYCHOBIOLOGY RESEARCH
3. SELF-REPORTS
4. CASE STUDIES
5. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS
6. COMPUTER SIMULATIONS (pc to simulate / imitate human cognitive performance) AND AI (PC to demonstrate intelligent
cognitive performance, brute force, does not represent how humans functions, but plays at highest possible level)
EXPERIMENTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Lab setting – 2 variables
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – individually manipulated while other aspects are held constant (Treatment)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE – outcome responses, values depend on how independent variable influences participants
Manipulate independent variable to observe effect on dependent variable
CONTROL VARIABLE - controls for effects of irrelevant variables which are held constant
CONFOUNDING VARIABLE - Irrelevant variables left uncontrolled which can influence results (time of day)
- Sample used must be representative and random – from population of interest
- Rigorous control over experimental conditions necessary
- Participants randomly assigned to treatment and control – allowing inference to be made of the effects of the
independent variable (treatment) on the dependent variable (outcome )
Psychologists who study cognitive processes with reaction time use – SUBTRACTION METHOD
Estimating the time a cognitive process takes by subtracting the amount of time information processing takes with the
process, from the time without the process
If outcomes in the treatment condition show statistically significant difference from outcomes in the control – one can
infer a causal link between independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable involve
Characteristics of the situation (presence vs. absence of stimuli)
Characteristics of the task ( reading vs. listening)
Characteristics of the participants (age diff, education) – not easily manipulated
CORRELATION – A statistical relationship between 2 or more attributes – expressed through a correlation coefficient called
PEARSON’S R
, PEARSON’S R = -1.00 (negative correlation) to +1.00
It describes the strength of a relationship. The closer to +1 –the stronger the relationship between the variables
A POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP – as one variable increases (vocab size) another variable increases (reading)
A NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP – one variable increases (fatigue) another variable decreases (alertness)
If the correlation coefficient = 0 then there is no relationship between the variables.
PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL RESEARCH - relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures
3 techniques
1. POSTMORTEM
2. STUDYING IMAGES showing structures of / activities in the brain of individual known to have cognitive defect
3. OBTAINING INFO. ABOUT CEREBRAL PROCESSES during normal performance of cognitive activity
- IN VIVO – while alive – studies of individuals with known defects
- Studying cerebral activity in animals – mapping neural activity
UNDERLYING THEMES IN THE STUDY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
NATURE VS. NURTURE
Thesis / Antithesis: which is more influential in human cognition, human characteristics (nature) or environment
(nurture)
Synthesis: How an impoverished environment adversely affects someone whose genes otherwise might have led to
success
RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM
Thesis/Antithesis: How do we discover truth about ourselves / world, logical reasoning (rationalism) or observing and
testing (empiricism)
Synthesis: How can we combine empirical methods to learn the most we can about cognitive processes
STRUCTURES VS. PROCESSES
Thesis / Antithesis: contents, attributes, products of the mind or processes of thinking?
Synthesis: How do mental processes operate on mental structures
DOMAIN GENERALITY VS. DOMAIN SPECIFICITY
Thesis / Antithesis: Are processes limited to a single domain or generally across a variety of domains. Do observations
in one domain apply to all, or only the specific domain in which they are observed
Synthesis: Which processes are domain general and which are domain specific
VALIDITY OF CAUSAL INFERENCES VS. ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY (the degree to which particular findings in one
environmental context may be considered relevant outside the context)
Thesis / Antithesis: Study cognition using highly controlled experiments that increase probability of valid inferences of
causality or use naturalistic techniques which increase the likelihood of getting ecologically valid findings
Synthesis: How can a variety of methods be combined (lab + naturalistic) that converge on findings that hold up
APPLIED VS. BASIC RESEARCH
Thesis / Antithesis: Research into fundamental cognitive processes or study ways in which to help people use cognition
effectively
Synthesis: Combine the 2 dialectically so that basic leads to applied which lead to basic
BIOLOGICAL VS BEHAVIORAL
Thesis / Antithesis: Study the brain while its functioning or study people’s behaviour in cognitive tasks?
Synthesis: How to synthesis the methods so that we understand cognitive phenomena at multiple levels of analysis
