CHAPTER 1
STRATEGIES OF DISCOVERY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Sources of general knowledge ................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Tradition ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Authority ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Mysticism & religion .......................................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Common sense .................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.5 Media myths ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Errors in human inquiry & how scientists try to avoid them............................................ 3
1.3.1 Inaccurate observation ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Over-generalisation ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3.3 Selective observation......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.4 Ego involvement in understanding ................................................................................ 4
1.3.5 The premature closure of inquiry ................................................................................... 4
1.4 Norms of the scientific community ......................................................................................... 4
1.5 Stages in research ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Stage 1: defining the problem ........................................................................................ 5
1.5.2 Stage 2: obtaining the information ................................................................................ 5
1.5.3 Stage 3: analysing & interpreting information ............................................................ 6
1.5.4 Stage 4: Communicating results ..................................................................................... 6
1.6 Questions about the nature of the world and the nature of knowledge about the
world ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Three dominant approaches to research .............................................................................. 6
1.7.1 The positivist approach ..................................................................................................... 6
View of social reality:................................................................................................................ 6
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality: .............................................................. 6
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, 1.7.2 The interpretive approach ................................................................................................ 7
View of social reality................................................................................................................. 7
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ............................................................... 7
1.7.3 The critical approach ......................................................................................................... 8
View of social reality................................................................................................................. 8
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ............................................................... 8
1.8 Contemporary methodological challenges ........................................................................... 9
1.8.1 Feminist research ............................................................................................................... 9
1.8.2 Postmodern research ....................................................................................................... 10
1.8.3 Postcolonialism ................................................................................................................. 11
View of social reality............................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION 1.2 SOURCES OF GENERAL
Inquiry = Process whereby we gain KNOWLEDGE
knowledge by observing how things are 1.2.1 Tradition
& thinking logically about what we We inherit a culture containing generally
observed. accepted knowledge. Knowledge =
Social world = the part of our existence cumulative & we can learn from
dealing with how people interact. previous generations BUT can be led
Science = a process of inquiry using into falsehood:
logic, observation & theory. Thinking traditionally – do not
• Logical (makes sense) find out how the knowledge was
• Has a reference (observed evidence) obtained in 1st place. Source of
• Gives a theory (explanation for what knowledge = not questioned.
was observed) Every scientific discipline =
Scientific research = Systematically based on tradition of thought.
examine & think about a question.
1.2.2 Authority
Accepting something as true because of
the status of the person who discovered
the truth. It can help because the expert
Page | 2
,probably has experience & knows he is BUT its chief purpose =
talking about. It can also hinder because entertainment, not to accurately present
people can overestimate the person’s reality
expertise. Experts can be wrong. This leads to distorted information &
errors.
1.2.3 Mysticism & religion
Religious knowledge = based on 1.3 ERRORS IN HUMAN INQUIRY &
HOW SCIENTISTS TRY TO AVOID
authority of sacred texts. Religion can THEM
offer meaning, but not reliable guide to
1.3.1 Inaccurate observation
literal state of world.
We need to know “what” before we can
1.2.4 Common sense explain “why”. People tend to be
Ordinary reasoning. Relates to what careless when observing everyday
people know intuitively/instinctively. events.
Helpful in everyday life, making Scientific observation:
decisions & solving problems & covers • Contrasts with this in that it is
topics everyone knows about & helps conscious activity
communication. • Deliberate
BUT • Simple & complex measurement
• contains illogical reasoning devices help prevent us from
• Does not systematically consider making inaccurate observations
how ideas = related to each
1.3.2 Over-generalisation
other
Arriving at a general conclusion about a
• Collect information systematically
thing when we have only observed a
• Common sense often originates
few cases of that thing. Using a few
in tradition
events to arrive at a conclusion means
1.2.5 Media myths we ignore the possibility that observing
Mass media = more cases may disprove our
Powerful influence on knowledge conclusion.
Most people develop their Esp. tempting when there is pressure to
knowledge from what they see, reach a conclusion. Halo-effect = over-
hear & read in the media generalising from one very good aspect
of a thing. Scientific safeguards against
overgeneralisation:
Page | 3
, • Sufficiently large samples of 1.3.5 The premature closure of
observations
inquiry
• Replication of inquiry
Tends to follow from the other errors.
1.3.3 Selective observation We stop inquiring before the evidence
Tends to follow from over- for sound conclusions = adequate
generalisation. Once you believe events (before our understanding = complete).
follow a particular pattern, and you Scientific Safeguards doing a thorough
think you know why, you tend to pay literature review, and this reveals the
attention to situations that correspond scope & complexity of the topic.
to that pattern & ignore/overlook However, science = an open-ended
situation that conflict with it. enterprise, & conclusions = constantly
Scientific safeguards against Selective modified.
Observation using a research design
1.4 NORMS OF THE SCIENTIFIC
that specifies the nr & kind of COMMUNITY
observations needed. Conclusions = Norms are rules of conduct in particular
based on analysis of all observations situations that = enforced by positive &
specified in the research design. negative sanctions. Norms in the
scientific community:
1.3.4 Ego involvement in
1. Universalism
understanding Research is judged purely on the
We are personally involved in our basis of its scientific merit
research & understanding has PYCal (regardless of who conducted it or
significance. Dis proof of our where it was done).
understandings make us feel foolish. 2. Organised Scepticism
This creates a barrier to objective All evidence should be challenged &
further enquiry. Scientific Safeguard questioned. This ensures that
against ego involvement by testing of research can stand up to
hypotheses in a systematic manner & examination.
making the research public enables 3. Disinterestedness
evaluation by other scientists. Scientists must be neutral, impartial
& open to unexpected
observations/new ideas. Should not
be rigidly weeded to an idea or
Page | 4
STRATEGIES OF DISCOVERY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Sources of general knowledge ................................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Tradition ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Authority ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Mysticism & religion .......................................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Common sense .................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.5 Media myths ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Errors in human inquiry & how scientists try to avoid them............................................ 3
1.3.1 Inaccurate observation ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Over-generalisation ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3.3 Selective observation......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.4 Ego involvement in understanding ................................................................................ 4
1.3.5 The premature closure of inquiry ................................................................................... 4
1.4 Norms of the scientific community ......................................................................................... 4
1.5 Stages in research ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Stage 1: defining the problem ........................................................................................ 5
1.5.2 Stage 2: obtaining the information ................................................................................ 5
1.5.3 Stage 3: analysing & interpreting information ............................................................ 6
1.5.4 Stage 4: Communicating results ..................................................................................... 6
1.6 Questions about the nature of the world and the nature of knowledge about the
world ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Three dominant approaches to research .............................................................................. 6
1.7.1 The positivist approach ..................................................................................................... 6
View of social reality:................................................................................................................ 6
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality: .............................................................. 6
Page | 1
, 1.7.2 The interpretive approach ................................................................................................ 7
View of social reality................................................................................................................. 7
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ............................................................... 7
1.7.3 The critical approach ......................................................................................................... 8
View of social reality................................................................................................................. 8
View of how to gain knowledge of social reality ............................................................... 8
1.8 Contemporary methodological challenges ........................................................................... 9
1.8.1 Feminist research ............................................................................................................... 9
1.8.2 Postmodern research ....................................................................................................... 10
1.8.3 Postcolonialism ................................................................................................................. 11
View of social reality............................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION 1.2 SOURCES OF GENERAL
Inquiry = Process whereby we gain KNOWLEDGE
knowledge by observing how things are 1.2.1 Tradition
& thinking logically about what we We inherit a culture containing generally
observed. accepted knowledge. Knowledge =
Social world = the part of our existence cumulative & we can learn from
dealing with how people interact. previous generations BUT can be led
Science = a process of inquiry using into falsehood:
logic, observation & theory. Thinking traditionally – do not
• Logical (makes sense) find out how the knowledge was
• Has a reference (observed evidence) obtained in 1st place. Source of
• Gives a theory (explanation for what knowledge = not questioned.
was observed) Every scientific discipline =
Scientific research = Systematically based on tradition of thought.
examine & think about a question.
1.2.2 Authority
Accepting something as true because of
the status of the person who discovered
the truth. It can help because the expert
Page | 2
,probably has experience & knows he is BUT its chief purpose =
talking about. It can also hinder because entertainment, not to accurately present
people can overestimate the person’s reality
expertise. Experts can be wrong. This leads to distorted information &
errors.
1.2.3 Mysticism & religion
Religious knowledge = based on 1.3 ERRORS IN HUMAN INQUIRY &
HOW SCIENTISTS TRY TO AVOID
authority of sacred texts. Religion can THEM
offer meaning, but not reliable guide to
1.3.1 Inaccurate observation
literal state of world.
We need to know “what” before we can
1.2.4 Common sense explain “why”. People tend to be
Ordinary reasoning. Relates to what careless when observing everyday
people know intuitively/instinctively. events.
Helpful in everyday life, making Scientific observation:
decisions & solving problems & covers • Contrasts with this in that it is
topics everyone knows about & helps conscious activity
communication. • Deliberate
BUT • Simple & complex measurement
• contains illogical reasoning devices help prevent us from
• Does not systematically consider making inaccurate observations
how ideas = related to each
1.3.2 Over-generalisation
other
Arriving at a general conclusion about a
• Collect information systematically
thing when we have only observed a
• Common sense often originates
few cases of that thing. Using a few
in tradition
events to arrive at a conclusion means
1.2.5 Media myths we ignore the possibility that observing
Mass media = more cases may disprove our
Powerful influence on knowledge conclusion.
Most people develop their Esp. tempting when there is pressure to
knowledge from what they see, reach a conclusion. Halo-effect = over-
hear & read in the media generalising from one very good aspect
of a thing. Scientific safeguards against
overgeneralisation:
Page | 3
, • Sufficiently large samples of 1.3.5 The premature closure of
observations
inquiry
• Replication of inquiry
Tends to follow from the other errors.
1.3.3 Selective observation We stop inquiring before the evidence
Tends to follow from over- for sound conclusions = adequate
generalisation. Once you believe events (before our understanding = complete).
follow a particular pattern, and you Scientific Safeguards doing a thorough
think you know why, you tend to pay literature review, and this reveals the
attention to situations that correspond scope & complexity of the topic.
to that pattern & ignore/overlook However, science = an open-ended
situation that conflict with it. enterprise, & conclusions = constantly
Scientific safeguards against Selective modified.
Observation using a research design
1.4 NORMS OF THE SCIENTIFIC
that specifies the nr & kind of COMMUNITY
observations needed. Conclusions = Norms are rules of conduct in particular
based on analysis of all observations situations that = enforced by positive &
specified in the research design. negative sanctions. Norms in the
scientific community:
1.3.4 Ego involvement in
1. Universalism
understanding Research is judged purely on the
We are personally involved in our basis of its scientific merit
research & understanding has PYCal (regardless of who conducted it or
significance. Dis proof of our where it was done).
understandings make us feel foolish. 2. Organised Scepticism
This creates a barrier to objective All evidence should be challenged &
further enquiry. Scientific Safeguard questioned. This ensures that
against ego involvement by testing of research can stand up to
hypotheses in a systematic manner & examination.
making the research public enables 3. Disinterestedness
evaluation by other scientists. Scientists must be neutral, impartial
& open to unexpected
observations/new ideas. Should not
be rigidly weeded to an idea or
Page | 4
