Physical Sciences Examination
Notes
, POLAR COVALENT BONDS ............................ 15
IONIC BONDS ................................................. 15
CHEMISTRY ........................................... 1 METALLIC BOND........................................... 16
RELATIVE MOLECULAR AND FORMULA
MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION.......................1 MASSES .......................................................... 16
MIXTURES AND PURE SUBSTANCES ................1 CALCULATION OF MOLECULAR MASS (M) . 17
PURE SUBSTANCES ..........................................2 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE FORMULA MASS
NAMES AND FORMULAE OF SUBSTANCES .......2 (M) ................................................................. 17
MONATOMIC (SINGULAR) ANIONS (NEGATIVE PARTICLES MAKING UP SUBSTANCES .......... 17
IONS) ................................................................2 COVALENT NETWORK STRUCTURES............ 18
POLYATOMIC IONS ..........................................3 PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS.... 19
PERIODIC TABLE TRICKS FOR METALS .........3 PROPERTIES OF IONIC SUBSTANCES ............ 19
STOCK NOTATION (TRANSITION METALS) ....3 PROPERTIES OF METALLIC SUBSTANCES .... 19
NON-METAL PERIODIC TABLE TRICKS..........3 REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS ....................... 19
NAMING CHEMICAL FORMULAE ....................3 TESTS FOR GASSES........................................ 20
METALLOIDS (SEMI-METALS) AND THEIR PHYSICAL CHANGES ..................................... 20
PROPERTIES .....................................................4 CHEMICAL CHANGE ..................................... 21
PROPERTIES OF METALS .................................4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS OR
PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS ........................4 MATTER ........................................................ 21
KEY WORDS.....................................................4 TWO TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS ...... 21
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY..............5 REPRESENTING CHEMICAL CHANGE
PARTICLES IN PHASES .....................................5 (BALANCING EQUATIONS) ............................ 21
STATES OF MATTER: DEFINITIONS.................5 ENERGY RELEASED DURING CHEMICAL
PRESSURE.........................................................6 REACTIONS.................................................... 22
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM......................6 ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS.......................... 22
ISOTOPES .........................................................6 EXOTHERMIC REACTION .............................. 22
CALCULATIONS FOR RELATIVE ATOMIC SOLUBILITY OF SALTS .................................. 23
MASS ................................................................6 DISSOLVING OF GLUCOSE ............................ 23
ATOMS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF ALL ELECTROLYSIS .............................................. 24
MATTER ...........................................................6 FACTORS AFFECTING CONDUCTIVITY OF
PURPOSE OF ATOMIC MODELS .......................7 SOLUTIONS..................................................... 24
ATOMIC MODEL TIMELINE.............................7 SOLUBILITY OF SALTS .................................. 25
THE FIRST IDEAS OF ATOMS ...........................7 DIFFERENT CHEMICAL EQUATIONS............. 25
THE FIRST ATOMIC THEORY ..........................7 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS:
THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON ..............7 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS ......................... 26
DISCOVERY OF THE PROTON AND THE SUMMARY OF PRECIPITATION REACTIONS . 26
NUCLEUS ..........................................................7 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS: REDOX
RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT .....8 REACTIONS.................................................... 27
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON MOVEMENT OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS ............ 28
AROUND THE NUCLEUS ....................................8
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS: ACID-
THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON ................8 BASE REACTIONS .......................................... 29
THE MODERN ATOMIC MODEL ......................8 THERE ARE FOUR KINDS OF ACID-BASE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION ..........................8 REACTIONS.................................................... 29
ELECTRONS......................................................9 1. ACID-BASE NEUTRALISATION ......... 29
AUFBAU DIAGRAMS (ENERGY LEVEL 2. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
DIAGRAMS) ......................................................9 METAL 30
ATOMIC MASS AND DIAMETER .....................10 3. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
THE PERIODIC TABLE ...................................10 METAL OXIDE ............................................... 30
PATTERNS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE .............10 4. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
DENSITY .........................................................10 METAL CARBONATE ..................................... 30
ATOMIC RADIUS ............................................11 DRIVING FORCES BEHIND REACTIONS ........ 31
IONISATION ENERGY .....................................11 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL
ELECTRON AFFINITY.....................................12 CHANGE......................................................... 31
ELECTRONEGATIVITY ...................................12 HYDRATES OR HYDROUS SALTS ................... 31
CHEMICAL BONDING .....................................13 THE MOLE..................................................... 31
LEWIS STRUCTURES (DOT-CROSS DIAGRAMS) EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND PERCENTAGE
........................................................................13 COMPOSITION ............................................... 32
COVALENT BONDING.....................................13 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION ........................ 32
DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS ..........................14 EMPIRICAL FORMULA .................................. 33
TRIPLE COVALENT BONDS............................14 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS ................. 34
........................................................................14 STANDARD SOLUTIONS ................................. 35
DATIVE COVALENT BONDS ...........................14 MOLAR VOLUME........................................... 35
COUPER NOTATION .......................................15 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS............... 35
, PERCENTAGE YIELD......................................38 DUAL NATURE OF EM RADIATION .............. 51
WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION......................39 MAGNETISM .................................................. 52
THE HYDROSPHERE ......................................39 WHY ARE SOME SUBSTANCES MAGNETIC? . 52
THE ECOLOGY OF RIVERS ............................40 PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET .......................... 52
HUMAN INTERACTION WITH RIVERS............40 MAGNETIC FIELD LINES ............................... 53
DAMS AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELDS ........................ 53
ENVIRONMENT...............................................40 ELECTROSTATICS ......................................... 54
GLOSSARY OF CHEMISTRY TERMS ...............41 THE CONSERVATION OF CHARGE ................ 54
PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE QUANTISATION ...... 54
PHYSICS............................................... 44 LIGHTNING .................................................... 55
SI UNITS .........................................................44 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS ..................................... 56
SAFETY...........................................................44 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: ............................. 56
RATE ..............................................................44 CURRENT ....................................................... 57
MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS ................44 RESISTANCE .................................................. 58
WAVES ...........................................................45 MECHANICS: VECTORS AND SCALARS ......... 60
TRANSVERSE WAVE ......................................45 USING DIAGRAMS TO REPRESENT VECTORS
LONGITUDINAL WAVE ..................................46 ....................................................................... 60
SUPERPOSITION OF PARTICLES.....................46 PROPERTIES OF VECTORS ............................ 61
PHASE.............................................................47 MULTIPLICATION OD VECTORS AND SCALARS
FREQUENCY/PERIOD RELATIONSHIP ...........47 ....................................................................... 61
WAVE SPEED (V) ............................................47 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS 61
SOUND WAVES (LONGITUDINAL)..................48 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VECTOR DIAGRAMS . 63
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WAVE SPEED AND DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT ................... 64
MEDIUM PROPERTIES ...................................48 AVERAGE SPEED ........................................... 64
LONGITUDINAL WAVES AND SOUND.............48 CONVERTING FROM KM.H-1 TO M.S-1 ............ 64
SOUNDS CAN BE REFLECTED, TRANSMITTED VELOCITY...................................................... 65
OR ABSORBED ................................................ 48 ACCELERATION: ........................................... 65
ECHO CALCULATION.....................................49 DIRECTION OF ACCELERATION .................... 66
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.........................49 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED ...... 66
PENETRATING ABILITY OF WAVES...............50 EQUATIONS OF MOTION ............................... 67
RADIO WAVES ...............................................50 GRAPHS OF MOTION ..................................... 68
MICROWAVES ................................................50 MECHANICAL ENERGY ................................. 71
INFRARED RADIO WAVES .............................50 KINETIC ENERGY .......................................... 72
VISIBLE LIGHT ..............................................50 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY ........ 72
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (BEYOND VIOLET) .....51 MECHANICAL ENERGY ................................. 73
X – RAYS ........................................................51 PENDULUMS................................................... 75
GAMMA RAYS ................................................51 ROLLERCOASTERS ........................................ 75
GLOSSARY OF PHYSICS TERMS .................... 77
pg. 1
, Chemistry
Matter and Classification
• Matter: made up of particles whose properties determine the observable characteristics
of matter and its reactivity.
• Properties of materials:
• Strength
• Brittle: Hard but likely to break easily
• Malleable: Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without breaking or cracking
• Ductile: Ability to be stretched into a wire
• Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance
• Melting point: The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient heat, becomes a liquid
• Boiling point: The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure equals the
external (atmospheric) pressure
Mixtures and Pure Substances
• Homogenous mixture: a mixture of uniform composition and in which all components
are in the same phase
• Heterogenous mixture: a mixture of non-uniform composition and of which all the
components can be easily identified
Matter
Pure
Mixtures
Substances
Homogenous Heterogenous Elements Compounds
Peanuts and
Tap water Metals Non-metals
Raisins
Sand and Iron
Coffee Non-magnetic Magnetic
Filings
Salt Water Iron
Nickel
Cobalt
pg. 1
Notes
, POLAR COVALENT BONDS ............................ 15
IONIC BONDS ................................................. 15
CHEMISTRY ........................................... 1 METALLIC BOND........................................... 16
RELATIVE MOLECULAR AND FORMULA
MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION.......................1 MASSES .......................................................... 16
MIXTURES AND PURE SUBSTANCES ................1 CALCULATION OF MOLECULAR MASS (M) . 17
PURE SUBSTANCES ..........................................2 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE FORMULA MASS
NAMES AND FORMULAE OF SUBSTANCES .......2 (M) ................................................................. 17
MONATOMIC (SINGULAR) ANIONS (NEGATIVE PARTICLES MAKING UP SUBSTANCES .......... 17
IONS) ................................................................2 COVALENT NETWORK STRUCTURES............ 18
POLYATOMIC IONS ..........................................3 PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS.... 19
PERIODIC TABLE TRICKS FOR METALS .........3 PROPERTIES OF IONIC SUBSTANCES ............ 19
STOCK NOTATION (TRANSITION METALS) ....3 PROPERTIES OF METALLIC SUBSTANCES .... 19
NON-METAL PERIODIC TABLE TRICKS..........3 REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS ....................... 19
NAMING CHEMICAL FORMULAE ....................3 TESTS FOR GASSES........................................ 20
METALLOIDS (SEMI-METALS) AND THEIR PHYSICAL CHANGES ..................................... 20
PROPERTIES .....................................................4 CHEMICAL CHANGE ..................................... 21
PROPERTIES OF METALS .................................4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS OR
PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS ........................4 MATTER ........................................................ 21
KEY WORDS.....................................................4 TWO TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS ...... 21
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY..............5 REPRESENTING CHEMICAL CHANGE
PARTICLES IN PHASES .....................................5 (BALANCING EQUATIONS) ............................ 21
STATES OF MATTER: DEFINITIONS.................5 ENERGY RELEASED DURING CHEMICAL
PRESSURE.........................................................6 REACTIONS.................................................... 22
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM......................6 ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS.......................... 22
ISOTOPES .........................................................6 EXOTHERMIC REACTION .............................. 22
CALCULATIONS FOR RELATIVE ATOMIC SOLUBILITY OF SALTS .................................. 23
MASS ................................................................6 DISSOLVING OF GLUCOSE ............................ 23
ATOMS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF ALL ELECTROLYSIS .............................................. 24
MATTER ...........................................................6 FACTORS AFFECTING CONDUCTIVITY OF
PURPOSE OF ATOMIC MODELS .......................7 SOLUTIONS..................................................... 24
ATOMIC MODEL TIMELINE.............................7 SOLUBILITY OF SALTS .................................. 25
THE FIRST IDEAS OF ATOMS ...........................7 DIFFERENT CHEMICAL EQUATIONS............. 25
THE FIRST ATOMIC THEORY ..........................7 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS:
THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON ..............7 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS ......................... 26
DISCOVERY OF THE PROTON AND THE SUMMARY OF PRECIPITATION REACTIONS . 26
NUCLEUS ..........................................................7 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS: REDOX
RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT .....8 REACTIONS.................................................... 27
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON MOVEMENT OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS ............ 28
AROUND THE NUCLEUS ....................................8
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS: ACID-
THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON ................8 BASE REACTIONS .......................................... 29
THE MODERN ATOMIC MODEL ......................8 THERE ARE FOUR KINDS OF ACID-BASE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION ..........................8 REACTIONS.................................................... 29
ELECTRONS......................................................9 1. ACID-BASE NEUTRALISATION ......... 29
AUFBAU DIAGRAMS (ENERGY LEVEL 2. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
DIAGRAMS) ......................................................9 METAL 30
ATOMIC MASS AND DIAMETER .....................10 3. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
THE PERIODIC TABLE ...................................10 METAL OXIDE ............................................... 30
PATTERNS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE .............10 4. REACTION BETWEEN AN ACID AND A
DENSITY .........................................................10 METAL CARBONATE ..................................... 30
ATOMIC RADIUS ............................................11 DRIVING FORCES BEHIND REACTIONS ........ 31
IONISATION ENERGY .....................................11 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL
ELECTRON AFFINITY.....................................12 CHANGE......................................................... 31
ELECTRONEGATIVITY ...................................12 HYDRATES OR HYDROUS SALTS ................... 31
CHEMICAL BONDING .....................................13 THE MOLE..................................................... 31
LEWIS STRUCTURES (DOT-CROSS DIAGRAMS) EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND PERCENTAGE
........................................................................13 COMPOSITION ............................................... 32
COVALENT BONDING.....................................13 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION ........................ 32
DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS ..........................14 EMPIRICAL FORMULA .................................. 33
TRIPLE COVALENT BONDS............................14 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS ................. 34
........................................................................14 STANDARD SOLUTIONS ................................. 35
DATIVE COVALENT BONDS ...........................14 MOLAR VOLUME........................................... 35
COUPER NOTATION .......................................15 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS............... 35
, PERCENTAGE YIELD......................................38 DUAL NATURE OF EM RADIATION .............. 51
WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION......................39 MAGNETISM .................................................. 52
THE HYDROSPHERE ......................................39 WHY ARE SOME SUBSTANCES MAGNETIC? . 52
THE ECOLOGY OF RIVERS ............................40 PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET .......................... 52
HUMAN INTERACTION WITH RIVERS............40 MAGNETIC FIELD LINES ............................... 53
DAMS AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELDS ........................ 53
ENVIRONMENT...............................................40 ELECTROSTATICS ......................................... 54
GLOSSARY OF CHEMISTRY TERMS ...............41 THE CONSERVATION OF CHARGE ................ 54
PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE QUANTISATION ...... 54
PHYSICS............................................... 44 LIGHTNING .................................................... 55
SI UNITS .........................................................44 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS ..................................... 56
SAFETY...........................................................44 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: ............................. 56
RATE ..............................................................44 CURRENT ....................................................... 57
MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS ................44 RESISTANCE .................................................. 58
WAVES ...........................................................45 MECHANICS: VECTORS AND SCALARS ......... 60
TRANSVERSE WAVE ......................................45 USING DIAGRAMS TO REPRESENT VECTORS
LONGITUDINAL WAVE ..................................46 ....................................................................... 60
SUPERPOSITION OF PARTICLES.....................46 PROPERTIES OF VECTORS ............................ 61
PHASE.............................................................47 MULTIPLICATION OD VECTORS AND SCALARS
FREQUENCY/PERIOD RELATIONSHIP ...........47 ....................................................................... 61
WAVE SPEED (V) ............................................47 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS 61
SOUND WAVES (LONGITUDINAL)..................48 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VECTOR DIAGRAMS . 63
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WAVE SPEED AND DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT ................... 64
MEDIUM PROPERTIES ...................................48 AVERAGE SPEED ........................................... 64
LONGITUDINAL WAVES AND SOUND.............48 CONVERTING FROM KM.H-1 TO M.S-1 ............ 64
SOUNDS CAN BE REFLECTED, TRANSMITTED VELOCITY...................................................... 65
OR ABSORBED ................................................ 48 ACCELERATION: ........................................... 65
ECHO CALCULATION.....................................49 DIRECTION OF ACCELERATION .................... 66
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.........................49 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED ...... 66
PENETRATING ABILITY OF WAVES...............50 EQUATIONS OF MOTION ............................... 67
RADIO WAVES ...............................................50 GRAPHS OF MOTION ..................................... 68
MICROWAVES ................................................50 MECHANICAL ENERGY ................................. 71
INFRARED RADIO WAVES .............................50 KINETIC ENERGY .......................................... 72
VISIBLE LIGHT ..............................................50 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY ........ 72
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (BEYOND VIOLET) .....51 MECHANICAL ENERGY ................................. 73
X – RAYS ........................................................51 PENDULUMS................................................... 75
GAMMA RAYS ................................................51 ROLLERCOASTERS ........................................ 75
GLOSSARY OF PHYSICS TERMS .................... 77
pg. 1
, Chemistry
Matter and Classification
• Matter: made up of particles whose properties determine the observable characteristics
of matter and its reactivity.
• Properties of materials:
• Strength
• Brittle: Hard but likely to break easily
• Malleable: Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without breaking or cracking
• Ductile: Ability to be stretched into a wire
• Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance
• Melting point: The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient heat, becomes a liquid
• Boiling point: The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure equals the
external (atmospheric) pressure
Mixtures and Pure Substances
• Homogenous mixture: a mixture of uniform composition and in which all components
are in the same phase
• Heterogenous mixture: a mixture of non-uniform composition and of which all the
components can be easily identified
Matter
Pure
Mixtures
Substances
Homogenous Heterogenous Elements Compounds
Peanuts and
Tap water Metals Non-metals
Raisins
Sand and Iron
Coffee Non-magnetic Magnetic
Filings
Salt Water Iron
Nickel
Cobalt
pg. 1
