Summary A-Level Psychology Memory – FULL Revision Notes (AQA, Top Grades)

2 Memory
KEY TERMS
CODING The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
CAPACITY The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
DURATION The length of time information can be held in memory
 The limited-capacity memory store
SHORT-
 Coding is mainly acoustic (sounds)
TERM
 Capacity is between 5 and 9 items on average
MEMORY  Duration is between about 18 and 30 seconds
 The permanent memory store
LONG-TERM  Coding is mainly semantic (meaning)
MEMORY  Unlimited capacity
 Can store memories for up to a lifetime
 A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called
MULTI-
sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory
STORE
 It also describes how information is transferred from one store to
MODEL another, how it is remembered and how it is forgotten
 The memory stores for each of our 5 senses, such as vision (iconic store)
and hearing (echoic store)
SENSORY  Coding in the iconic sensory register is visual
REGISTER  Coding in the echoic sensory register is acoustic
 The capacity of sensory registers is huge (millions of receptors)
 Information lasts for a very short time (less than half a second)
 A long-term memory store for personal events
EPISODIC  Includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people,
MEMORY objects, places and behaviours involved
 Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
 A long-term memory store for our knowledge of the world
SEMANTIC
 Includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean
MEMORY  These memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately
 A long-term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things
PROCEDUR  Includes out memories of learned skills
AL MEMORY  We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or
deliberate effort
 A representation of short-term memory
WORKING
 It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of
MEMORY
information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making
MODEL system
 The component of the WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three
CENTRAL
subsystems in memory
EXECUTIVE  It also allocates processing resources to those activities
PHONO-  The component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound
LOGICAL  This includes both written and spoken material
LOOP  It’s divided into the phonological store and the articulatory process
VISUO- The component of the WMM that processes visual and spatial information
SPATIAL in a mental space often called our ‘inner eye’
SKETCH
PAD
 The component of the WMM that brings together material from the other
EPISODIC subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands
BUFFER  It also provides a bridge between working memory and long-term
memory
INTERFERE Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both
NCE memories to be distorted or forgotten
PROACTIVE  Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall

,INTERFERE of newer memories
NCE  The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar
RETROACTI  Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older
VE memories that are already stored
INTERFERE  The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar
NCE
 A form of forgetting
RETRIEVAL  It occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory
FAILURE  The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is
provided
 A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory
 Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being
CUE encoded at the time of learning
 For example, cues may be external (environmental context) or internal
(mood or degree of drunkenness)
 The ability of people to remember the details of events, such as
EYEWITNES
accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed
S  Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading
TESTIMONY information, leading questions and anxiety
MISLEADIN  Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event
G (hence often called ‘post-event information’)
INFORMATI  It can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event
ON discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people
 A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain
LEADING answer
QUESTION  For example: “Was the knife in the accused’s left hand?”. This suggests
the answer is ‘left hand’
POST-  Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event
EVENT  Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with
DISCUSSIO other people
N  This may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event
 A state of emotional and physical arousal
 The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension
ANXIETY  Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness
 Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations, but can affect the
accuracy and detail of eyewitness testimony
WEAPON  An eyewitness’ concentration on a weapon resulting in the exclusion of
FOCUS other details of a crime
EFFECT
 A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more
accurate memories
COGNITIVE
 It uses four main techniques, all based on well-established psychological
INTERVIEW knowledge of human memory – report everything, reinstate the context,
reverse the order, and change perspective

, KEY PSYCHOLOGISTS & DATES
BADDELEY (1966) JACOBS (1887) MILLER (1956)
COWAN (2001) SOLSO (1991) ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN
(1968+1971)
BAHRICK et al. (1975) SHEPARD (1967) SHALLICE & WARRINGTON
(1970)
TULVING (1972) BADDELEY & HITCH LOGIE (1995)
(1974)
MCGEOCH & MCDONALD TULVING & THOMSON ETHEL ABERN (______)
(1931)
GOODWIN (_____) LOFTUS & PALMER ZARAGOSA & MCCLOSKEY
(1975) (1989)
SMITH & VELA (2001) NAIRNE (2002)
JOHNSON & SCOTT (1976) (NOT SURE YET) YERKES & DODSON (1908)
DEFFENBACHER (1983) FISHER & GEISELMAN KEBELL & WAGSTAFF
(1992) (1996)
MILNE & BULL (2002)




Coding, capacity and duration of memory