GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW GUIDE 2026
◉ Bandura's social cognitive model. Answer: The arrows illustrate
how relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environment
are reciprocal rather than one-way.
◉ Ethology. Answer: Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by
biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or
sensitive periods
◉ Erikson vs. Freud. Answer: Erik Erikson (1902-1994) recognized
Freud's contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some
important dimensions of human development. For one thing,
Erikson (1950, 1968) said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather
than in psychosexual stages as Freud maintained. According to
Freud, the primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in
nature; according to Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to
affiliate with other people. According to Freud, our basic personality
is shaped during the first five years of life; according to Erikson,
developmental change occurs throughout the life span. Thus, in
terms of the early-versus-later-experience issue described earlier in
the chapter, Freud viewed early experience as being far more
important than later experiences, whereas Erikson emphasized the
importance of both early and later experiences.
,◉ Descriptive research. Answer: Aims to observe and record
behavior. For example, a researcher might observe the extent to
which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each other. By itself,
descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon,
but it can reveal important information about people's behavior
◉ Correlational research. Answer: Aims to describe the strength of
the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. The
more strongly the two events are correlated (or related or
associated), the more accurately we can predict one event from the
other
◉ Expermental Research. Answer: Carefully regulated procedure in
which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior
being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held
constant.
◉ Case study. Answer: Study of one individual in great depth
◉ Cross-sectional study. Answer: Study in which people of different
ages are compared with one another
◉ Longitudinal study. Answer: Study that observes the same
participants on many occasions over a long period of time usually
years.
, ◉ Dominant vs. Recessive genes. Answer: One gene of a pair always
exerts its effects (dominant), overriding the potential influence of
the other gene (recessive)
◉ Genotype vs. Phenotype. Answer: • Genotype: A person's genetic
heritage; the actual genetic material.
• Phenotype: The way an individual's genotype is expressed in
observed and measurable characteristics, including physical
characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and
psychological characteristics (such as personality and intelligence).
◉ Chromosomal abnormalities. Answer: Down syndrome, Turner
syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
◉ Genetic abnormalities. Answer: Sickle cell anemia, Fragile X
syndrome, Phenylketonuria (PKU)
◉ Life-span perspective. Answer: The perspective that development
is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic,
multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and
regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and
individual factors working together.
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW GUIDE 2026
◉ Bandura's social cognitive model. Answer: The arrows illustrate
how relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environment
are reciprocal rather than one-way.
◉ Ethology. Answer: Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by
biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or
sensitive periods
◉ Erikson vs. Freud. Answer: Erik Erikson (1902-1994) recognized
Freud's contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some
important dimensions of human development. For one thing,
Erikson (1950, 1968) said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather
than in psychosexual stages as Freud maintained. According to
Freud, the primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in
nature; according to Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to
affiliate with other people. According to Freud, our basic personality
is shaped during the first five years of life; according to Erikson,
developmental change occurs throughout the life span. Thus, in
terms of the early-versus-later-experience issue described earlier in
the chapter, Freud viewed early experience as being far more
important than later experiences, whereas Erikson emphasized the
importance of both early and later experiences.
,◉ Descriptive research. Answer: Aims to observe and record
behavior. For example, a researcher might observe the extent to
which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each other. By itself,
descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon,
but it can reveal important information about people's behavior
◉ Correlational research. Answer: Aims to describe the strength of
the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. The
more strongly the two events are correlated (or related or
associated), the more accurately we can predict one event from the
other
◉ Expermental Research. Answer: Carefully regulated procedure in
which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior
being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held
constant.
◉ Case study. Answer: Study of one individual in great depth
◉ Cross-sectional study. Answer: Study in which people of different
ages are compared with one another
◉ Longitudinal study. Answer: Study that observes the same
participants on many occasions over a long period of time usually
years.
, ◉ Dominant vs. Recessive genes. Answer: One gene of a pair always
exerts its effects (dominant), overriding the potential influence of
the other gene (recessive)
◉ Genotype vs. Phenotype. Answer: • Genotype: A person's genetic
heritage; the actual genetic material.
• Phenotype: The way an individual's genotype is expressed in
observed and measurable characteristics, including physical
characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and
psychological characteristics (such as personality and intelligence).
◉ Chromosomal abnormalities. Answer: Down syndrome, Turner
syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
◉ Genetic abnormalities. Answer: Sickle cell anemia, Fragile X
syndrome, Phenylketonuria (PKU)
◉ Life-span perspective. Answer: The perspective that development
is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic,
multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and
regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and
individual factors working together.
