01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Arrangement of Elements
Metals are normally solids (mercury being an exception), shiny, and good conductors
of heat and electricity. They can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) and
extruded into wires (ductile). Chemically, metals tend to lose electrons in reactions,
to form cations.
Elements bordering the stair-stepped line (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) are classified as
metalloids. Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
Nonmetals have properties that are often the opposite of metals. Some are gases,
are poor conductors of heat and electricity, are neither malleable nor ductile, and
tend to gain electrons in their chemical reactions to form anions.
The Roman numeral at the top of the main-group families indicates the number of
valence (outermost shell) electrons in that element. Valence electrons are normally
considered to be only the s and p electrons in the outermost energy level. The
transition elements (B groups) are filling d-orbitals, while the inner transition
elements are filling f-orbitals.
KEY IDEA
IA group (Group 1)
ST
G
G IIA group (Group 2)
G VIIA group (Group 17) G VIIIA group (Group 18)
alkali metals alkaline earth metals halogens
noble gases
Trends in Periodic Table
Effective Nuclear Charge- causes overall attraction an electron experiences; protons
in nucleus (has + charge) and electrons attracted to each other;electrons between
O
the nucleus and other electrons shield the outer electrons from the charge of the
nucleus, however, as increase in atomic number in a period, # of protons increases,
increasing the attraction b/w the e- and p+
Left to right: effective nuclear charge increases
IC
Size of an atom- as we move from top to bottom within a group, the number of
valence shells increases, atom increases. However, as we move left to right within a
period, the atom size decreases because the increasing effective nuclear charge
causes the electrons to pull more closely to the nucleus, decreasing the atom's radius
Left to right: atom size decreases
Top to bottom: atom size increases
Ionization energy- energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom;
two factors affect: size of atom (smaller atoms require more energy because of the
higher effective nuclear charge) and magnitude of effective nuclear charge (greater
effective nuclear charge, more energy required to remove)
Top to bottom: ionization energy decreases
Left to right: ionization energy increases
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Electron Affinity- the energy change that results form adding an electron to an ion or
atom; because of the effective nuclear charge…
Left to right: electron affinity increases (big energy change from strong nuclear
charge being spread out over more ions, want to complete their shells)
Top to bottom: electron affinity decreases
Oxidation Numbers:
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,01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Electron Affinity- the energy change that results form adding an electron to an ion or
atom; because of the effective nuclear charge…
Left to right: electron affinity increases (big energy change from strong nuclear
charge being spread out over more ions, want to complete their shells)
Top to bottom: electron affinity decreases
Oxidation Numbers:
o The oxidation number of an element in its elemental form (i.e., H 2, Au, Ag, N2) is
zero.
o The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. The
oxi- dation number of Mg2+ is +2.
o The sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a neutral molecule is
zero.
o The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge
on the ion.
o The alkali metal ions have an oxidation number of +1 in all their compounds.
o The alkaline earth metals have an oxidation number of +2 in all their compounds.
ST
o The oxidation number of hydrogen in compounds is +1, except it is −1 when
combined with metals or boron in binary compounds.
o The oxidation number of halogens in their compounds is −1 except when
combined with another halogen above them on the periodic table, or with
oxygen.
o The oxidation number of oxygen is −2 in compounds, except for peroxides, in
which it is −1.
O
Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in sulfuric acid, H 2SOff. The sum of all the
oxidation numbers must equal zero, since this is a neutral compound. The oxidation
numbers of hydrogen (+1) and oxygen (−2) are known, so the oxidation number of
sulfur can be determined:
2(+1) + ? + ff(−2) = 0
IC
H2SOff
The oxidation number of sulfur in this compound must be +6.
Binary Compounds
(a) Metal type These binary compounds begin with metals. The metal is given first in
the formula. In general, metals are the elements on the left-hand side of the periodic
table, and the nonmetals are on the right-hand side. Hydrogen, a nonmetal, is an
exception to this generalization.
First name the metal, then name the nonmetal with the suffix ide. Examples:
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Formula Name
Na2O sodium oxide
MgCl2 magnesium chloride
(b) Nonmetal type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with a
nonmetal. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of each atom present. No
prefixes are used for hydrogen. Naming the compounds can best be explained using
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,01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Formula Name
Na2O sodium oxide
MgCl2 magnesium chloride
(b) Nonmetal type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with a
nonmetal. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of each atom present. No
prefixes are used for hydrogen. Naming the compounds can best be explained using
the following examples:
Formula Name
CO carbon monoxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
PffO10 tetraphosphorus decoxide
Number of atoms Prefix
1 mono
ST
2 di
3 tri
ff tetra
tt penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
O
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca
In normal nomenclature, the nonmetal prefixes are not used if a metal is present.
IC
(c) Acid type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with hydrogen. If the
compound is not in solution, the naming is similar to that of the metal type.
If the compound is dissolved in H2O, indicated by (aq), the compound takes on the prefix
hydro and the suffix ic. If the compound is not in solution, the state of matter should be
shown as follows:
HCl(g), HF(l)
If the formula has no designation of phase or water, either name may be used. Examples
for naming these compounds are:
Formula Name
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
HCl(g) hydrogen chloride
H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
HCl hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid
H2S hydrogen sulfide or hydrosulfuric acid
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, 01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
HCl(g) hydrogen chloride
H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
HCl hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid
H2S hydrogen sulfide or hydrosulfuric acid
Ternary Compounds
Contain 3 or more elements
If an acid name has the suffix ic, the ion of this acid has a name with the suffix ate. If
an acid name has the suffix ous, the ion has a name with the suffix ite.
The acid with the suffix ous usually has one fewer oxygen atom than the acid with
the suffix ic.
Formula Name of the acid
H2SOff sulfuric acid
ST
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
HNO3 nitric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
Acid formula Acid name Ion Name Salt Name
H2SOff sulfuric acid sulfate ion Na2SOff
O
H2SO3 sulfurous acid sulfite ion Na2SO3
HNO3 nitric acid nitrate ion KNO3
HNO2 nitrous acid nitrite ion KNO2
IC
H3POff phosphoric acid phosphate ion (NHff)3POff
To write the formula from the name of a binary compound containing only
nonmetals, simply write the symbols for the separate atoms with the prefixes
converted to subscripts.
One way of predicting the values of the subscripts is to crisscross the valences.
Al2O3
Al 3+O 2−
If a polyatomic ion must be increased to achieve zero charge, parentheses should be
used. An example of this is shown as:
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
NHffSOff =+1−2=−1
CNH4 32 SO4 = 2C+13− 2 = O
Hydrogen and the metals have positive charges beginning with +1 on the left and
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Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Arrangement of Elements
Metals are normally solids (mercury being an exception), shiny, and good conductors
of heat and electricity. They can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable) and
extruded into wires (ductile). Chemically, metals tend to lose electrons in reactions,
to form cations.
Elements bordering the stair-stepped line (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) are classified as
metalloids. Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
Nonmetals have properties that are often the opposite of metals. Some are gases,
are poor conductors of heat and electricity, are neither malleable nor ductile, and
tend to gain electrons in their chemical reactions to form anions.
The Roman numeral at the top of the main-group families indicates the number of
valence (outermost shell) electrons in that element. Valence electrons are normally
considered to be only the s and p electrons in the outermost energy level. The
transition elements (B groups) are filling d-orbitals, while the inner transition
elements are filling f-orbitals.
KEY IDEA
IA group (Group 1)
ST
G
G IIA group (Group 2)
G VIIA group (Group 17) G VIIIA group (Group 18)
alkali metals alkaline earth metals halogens
noble gases
Trends in Periodic Table
Effective Nuclear Charge- causes overall attraction an electron experiences; protons
in nucleus (has + charge) and electrons attracted to each other;electrons between
O
the nucleus and other electrons shield the outer electrons from the charge of the
nucleus, however, as increase in atomic number in a period, # of protons increases,
increasing the attraction b/w the e- and p+
Left to right: effective nuclear charge increases
IC
Size of an atom- as we move from top to bottom within a group, the number of
valence shells increases, atom increases. However, as we move left to right within a
period, the atom size decreases because the increasing effective nuclear charge
causes the electrons to pull more closely to the nucleus, decreasing the atom's radius
Left to right: atom size decreases
Top to bottom: atom size increases
Ionization energy- energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom;
two factors affect: size of atom (smaller atoms require more energy because of the
higher effective nuclear charge) and magnitude of effective nuclear charge (greater
effective nuclear charge, more energy required to remove)
Top to bottom: ionization energy decreases
Left to right: ionization energy increases
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Electron Affinity- the energy change that results form adding an electron to an ion or
atom; because of the effective nuclear charge…
Left to right: electron affinity increases (big energy change from strong nuclear
charge being spread out over more ions, want to complete their shells)
Top to bottom: electron affinity decreases
Oxidation Numbers:
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,01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Electron Affinity- the energy change that results form adding an electron to an ion or
atom; because of the effective nuclear charge…
Left to right: electron affinity increases (big energy change from strong nuclear
charge being spread out over more ions, want to complete their shells)
Top to bottom: electron affinity decreases
Oxidation Numbers:
o The oxidation number of an element in its elemental form (i.e., H 2, Au, Ag, N2) is
zero.
o The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. The
oxi- dation number of Mg2+ is +2.
o The sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a neutral molecule is
zero.
o The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge
on the ion.
o The alkali metal ions have an oxidation number of +1 in all their compounds.
o The alkaline earth metals have an oxidation number of +2 in all their compounds.
ST
o The oxidation number of hydrogen in compounds is +1, except it is −1 when
combined with metals or boron in binary compounds.
o The oxidation number of halogens in their compounds is −1 except when
combined with another halogen above them on the periodic table, or with
oxygen.
o The oxidation number of oxygen is −2 in compounds, except for peroxides, in
which it is −1.
O
Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in sulfuric acid, H 2SOff. The sum of all the
oxidation numbers must equal zero, since this is a neutral compound. The oxidation
numbers of hydrogen (+1) and oxygen (−2) are known, so the oxidation number of
sulfur can be determined:
2(+1) + ? + ff(−2) = 0
IC
H2SOff
The oxidation number of sulfur in this compound must be +6.
Binary Compounds
(a) Metal type These binary compounds begin with metals. The metal is given first in
the formula. In general, metals are the elements on the left-hand side of the periodic
table, and the nonmetals are on the right-hand side. Hydrogen, a nonmetal, is an
exception to this generalization.
First name the metal, then name the nonmetal with the suffix ide. Examples:
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Formula Name
Na2O sodium oxide
MgCl2 magnesium chloride
(b) Nonmetal type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with a
nonmetal. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of each atom present. No
prefixes are used for hydrogen. Naming the compounds can best be explained using
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,01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
Formula Name
Na2O sodium oxide
MgCl2 magnesium chloride
(b) Nonmetal type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with a
nonmetal. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of each atom present. No
prefixes are used for hydrogen. Naming the compounds can best be explained using
the following examples:
Formula Name
CO carbon monoxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
PffO10 tetraphosphorus decoxide
Number of atoms Prefix
1 mono
ST
2 di
3 tri
ff tetra
tt penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
O
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca
In normal nomenclature, the nonmetal prefixes are not used if a metal is present.
IC
(c) Acid type These binary compounds have formulas that begin with hydrogen. If the
compound is not in solution, the naming is similar to that of the metal type.
If the compound is dissolved in H2O, indicated by (aq), the compound takes on the prefix
hydro and the suffix ic. If the compound is not in solution, the state of matter should be
shown as follows:
HCl(g), HF(l)
If the formula has no designation of phase or water, either name may be used. Examples
for naming these compounds are:
Formula Name
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
HCl(g) hydrogen chloride
H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
HCl hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid
H2S hydrogen sulfide or hydrosulfuric acid
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, 01/10/2023 00:35 Chemistry 101 Duke University Notes up until Midterm 1 Fall 2015
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
HCl(g) hydrogen chloride
H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
HCl hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid
H2S hydrogen sulfide or hydrosulfuric acid
Ternary Compounds
Contain 3 or more elements
If an acid name has the suffix ic, the ion of this acid has a name with the suffix ate. If
an acid name has the suffix ous, the ion has a name with the suffix ite.
The acid with the suffix ous usually has one fewer oxygen atom than the acid with
the suffix ic.
Formula Name of the acid
H2SOff sulfuric acid
ST
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
HNO3 nitric acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
Acid formula Acid name Ion Name Salt Name
H2SOff sulfuric acid sulfate ion Na2SOff
O
H2SO3 sulfurous acid sulfite ion Na2SO3
HNO3 nitric acid nitrate ion KNO3
HNO2 nitrous acid nitrite ion KNO2
IC
H3POff phosphoric acid phosphate ion (NHff)3POff
To write the formula from the name of a binary compound containing only
nonmetals, simply write the symbols for the separate atoms with the prefixes
converted to subscripts.
One way of predicting the values of the subscripts is to crisscross the valences.
Al2O3
Al 3+O 2−
If a polyatomic ion must be increased to achieve zero charge, parentheses should be
used. An example of this is shown as:
Chemistry 101
Duke University
Notes up until Midterm 1
NHffSOff =+1−2=−1
CNH4 32 SO4 = 2C+13− 2 = O
Hydrogen and the metals have positive charges beginning with +1 on the left and
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