Laboratory Manual
,Biology
Laboratory Manual
Thirteenth Edition
Darrell S. Vodopich
Baylor University
Randy Moore
University of Minnesota
,Contents
Preface v Exercise 16
Teaching and Learning Tools ix Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: DNA Isolation and Genetic
Transformation 175
Welcome to the Biology Laboratory xii
Exercise 1 Exercise 17
Genetics: The Principles of Mendel 183
Scientific Method: The Process of Science 1
Exercise 2 Exercise 18
Evolution: Natural Selection and Morphological Change in
Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis 11
Green Algae 199
Exercise 3 Exercise 19
The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy 21
Human Evolution: Skull Examination 211
Exercise 4 Exercise 20
The Cell: Structure and Function 33
Ecology: Diversity and Interaction in Plant Communities 223
Exercise 5 Exercise 21
Solutions, Acids, and Bases: The pH Scale 51
Community Succession 233
Exercise 6 Exercise 22
Biologically Important Molecules: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and
Population Growth: Limitations of the Environment 241
Nucleic Acids 59
Exercise 7 Exercise 23
Pollution: The Effects of Chemical, Thermal, and Acidic Pollution 249
Separating Organic Compounds: Column Chromatography, Paper
Chromatography, and Gel Electrophoresis 73
Exercise 24
Survey of Prokaryotes: Domains Archaea and Bacteria 259
Exercise 8
Spectrophotometry: Identifying Solutes and Determining Their
Concentration 83 Exercise 25
Survey of Protists: Algal Autotrophs 275
Exercise 9
Diffusion and Osmosis: Passive Movement of Molecules in Biological Exercise 26
Systems 95 Survey of Protists: Protozoan Heterotrophs 289
Exercise 10 Exercise 27
Cellular Membranes: Effects of Physical and Chemical Stress 109 Survey of the Kingdom Fungi: Molds, Sac Fungi, Mushrooms, and
Lichens 299
Exercise 11
Enzymes: Factors Affecting the Rate of Activity 117 Exercise 28
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Liverworts, Mosses, and Hornworts of
Phyla Hepatophyta, Bryophyta, and Anthocerophyta 315
Exercise 12
Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation of Organic
Molecules 129 Exercise 29
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Seedless Vascular Plants of Phyla
Pterophyta and Lycophyta 325
Exercise 13
Photosynthesis: Pigment Separation, Starch Production, and CO2
Uptake 141 Exercise 30
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Gymnosperms of Phyla Cycadophyta,
Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and Gnetophyta 337
Exercise 14
Mitosis: Replication of Eukaryotic Cells 153
Exercise 31
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Angiosperms 347
Exercise 15
Meiosis: Reduction Division and Gametogenesis 163
TOC–1 iii
,Exercise 32 Exercise 43
Plant Anatomy: Vegetative Structure of Vascular Plants 363 Human Biology: Muscles and Muscle Contraction 507
Exercise 33 Exercise 44
Plant Physiology: Transpiration 377 Human Biology: Breathing 515
Exercise 34 Exercise 45
Plant Physiology: Tropisms, Nutrition, and Growth Regulators 385 Human Biology: Circulation and Blood Pressure 525
Exercise 35 Exercise 46
Bioassay: Measuring Physiologically Active Substances 397 Human Biology: Sensory Perception 539
Exercise 36 Exercise 47
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Porifera and Cnidaria 403 Vertebrate Anatomy: External Features and Skeletal
System of the Rat 549
Exercise 37
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Platyhelminthes and Exercise 48
Mollusca 419 Vertebrate Anatomy: Muscles and Internal Organs of the Rat 557
Exercise 38 Exercise 49
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Annelida and Nematoda 435 Vertebrate Anatomy: Urogenital and Circulatory Systems of the Rat 567
Exercise 39 Exercise 50
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phylum Arthropoda 449 Embryology: Comparative Morphologies and Strategies
of Development 579
Exercise 40
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Echinodermata and Exercise 51
Chordata 463 Animal Behavior: Taxis, Kinesis, and Agonistic Behavior 589
Exercise 41 Appendix I
Vertebrate Animal Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Dissection of a Fetal Pig 595
Tissues 483
Appendix II
Exercise 42 Conversion of Metric Units to English Units 602
Human Biology: The Human Skeletal System 499
iv TOC–2
,Preface
Contents
W e have designed this laboratory manual for an intro-
ductory biology course with a broad survey of basic
laboratory techniques. The experiments and procedures are
biology. We’ve tried to guide students from observations to
conclusions, to help students make their own discoveries,
and to make the transition from observation to understand-
simple, safe, easy to perform, and especially appropriate for ing biological principles. But discussions and interactions
large classes. Few experiments require more than one class between student and instructor are major components of a
meeting to complete the procedure. Each exercise includes successful laboratory experience. Be sure to examine the
many photographs and illustrations, traditional topics, and “Questions for Further Study and Inquiry” in each exercise.
experiments that help students do biology as they learn about We hope they will help you expand students’ perceptions
life. Procedures within each exercise are numerous and dis- that each exercise has broad application to their world.
crete so that an exercise can be tailored to the needs of the stu-
dents, the style of the instructor, and the facilities available.
DIGITAL INTEGRATION
TO THE STUDENT Today’s students are digital learners, and this lab manual
integrates that learning with interesting activities that help
We hope this manual is an interesting guide to many areas
students learn about biology. Virtually every exercise of this
of biology. As you read about these areas, you’ll probably
manual is accompanied by tailor-made digital resources,
spend equal amounts of time observing and experimenting.
including assignable questions and a variety of high-definition
Don’t hesitate to go beyond the observations that we’ve
videos, PowerPoint images, and other resources that demon-
outlined—your future success as a scientist and an informed
strate basic techniques, emphasize biological principles, test
citizen depends on your ability to seek and notice things that
for understanding, and engage students as they learn biology
others may overlook. Now is the time to develop this ability
in the laboratory.
with a mixture of hard work and relaxed observation. Have
Digital resources are available to instructors at connect
fun, and learning will come easily. Also, remember that this
.mheducation.com. Instructors will want to assign these
manual is designed with your instructors in mind as well. Go
resources to help students know what they’ll be doing, what
to them often with questions—their experience is a valuable
principles they’ll be investigating, and what concepts they’ll
tool that you should use as you work.
need to understand before coming to lab.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
This manual’s simple, straightforward approach emphasizes
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
experiments and activities that optimize students’ investment Throughout the manual, we have expanded and improved
of time and your investment of supplies, equipment, and several of the most popular and effective features of
preparation. Simple, safe, and straightforward experiments previous editions, including
are most effective if you interpret the work in depth. Most ∙ Learning Objectives have been updated to provide an
experiments can be done easily by a student in 2 to 3 hours. overview of what students will do and learn in the exercise.
Terminology, structures, photographs, and concepts are lim-
ited to those that the student can readily observe and under- ∙ Procedures and Doing Biology Yourself require stu-
stand. In each exercise we have included a few activities dents to do biology as they apply skills they’ve learned to
requiring a greater investment of effort if resources are avail- develop and study hypotheses they formulate about biology.
able, but omitting them will not detract from the objectives. ∙ Questions throughout each exercise encourage students to
This manual functions best with an instructor’s guid- pause and think about their data and what they’ve learned.
ance and is not an autotutorial system. We've provided back-
ground information for context and understanding, but the ∙ Questions for Further Study and Inquiry at the
focus of each exercise remains on students doing interesting end of each exercise help students apply what they’ve
and meaningful activities to learn basic information about learned to broader topics and issues in biology.
P–1 v
,∙ Writing to Learn Biology encourages students to use writ- ∙ Exercise 6—Replaced figure 6.9 with a better, more
ing to develop their ideas about what they learned in lab. informative image; Added a table for students to sum-
marize the biochemical tests they performed in the lab;
∙ Caution and Safety First icons make students aware of Added a question to emphasize the significance of acid
safety issues associated with the procedures they’ll use precipitation; Added a boxed insert about using the
in lab. iodine test to detect counterfeit money; Added a boxed
∙ Boxed readings titled Inquiry-Based Learning encour- insert about dietary fats
age students to apply what they’ve learned to indepen- ∙ Exercise 7—Reorganized the procedures for better use
dently answer questions about intriguing biological topics. of time in the lab
∙ Updated health-related exercises help students better ∙ Exercise 9—Revised the Introduction and Diffusion
understand how topics such as genetics, cell biology, sections to emphasize the relevance of osmosis and dif-
blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and their risk of cardio- fusion to general physiology; Enhanced the safety notice
vascular disease relate to our health. to use appropriate PPE; Added question for problem-
∙ Several illustrations have been replaced with photographs solving based on experimental data; Revised captions for
to provide more realistic images to support the Exercise figures 9.7 and 9.9 to emphasize the flow of water into
content. and out of cells
∙ Approximately 90 illustrations and photos have been ∙ Exercise 10—Revised the Introduction to reinforce
revised. understanding of how membranes regulate the move-
ment of materials into and out of cells
∙ Questions within procedures now include lines on which
students can write their answers. ∙ Exercise 12—Replaced figure 12.1 (i.e., rising bread
dough) to show the production of carbon dioxide; Edited
∙ An assignable, updated library of videos and Connect
questions for improved understanding; Updated the ter-
questions helps students prepare for lab and understand
minology for the citric acid cycle
the instruments and techniques that will be important
for their investigations. Instructors may assign these ∙ Exercise 13—Replaced figure 13.1 to emphasize the
videos before class time to help ensure that students production of oxygen by photosynthesis; Edited the text
arrive prepared for lab. for improved readability and understanding; Corrected
figure 13.10 for improved entry of data by students
Exercise-Specific Changes ∙ Exercise 14—Enhanced the readability of the Introduc-
tion; Expanded the description of chromatids versus
∙ Exercise 1—Edited text for improved readability and chromosomes; Added new figure 14.6 showing the
relevance (e.g., climate change, COVID-19); Improved metaphase plate and chromosomal alignment
questions to help students better understand what sci-
∙ Exercise 15—Revised the Introduction to emphasize
ence is and how science is done
the value of genetic recombination for adaptation to
∙ Exercise 2—Improved the readability of the text and the changing environments; Revised labels of figure 15.1 to
presentation of metric units; Specified the differences better distinguish maternal homologues from paternal
in using a triple-beam balance and an electronic scale; homologues; Revised figure 15.2 to emphasize (1) the
Emphasized the importance of significant figures in replication of chromosomes and (2) the formation of
measurements; Emphasized that in biology, the mean is chromatids; Added new figure 15.6 of spermatogenesis
usually preferred to the median when reporting descrip- to emphasize the steps of maturation from spermatogo-
tive statistics; Added a question about measurements of nium to spermatozoa
COVID-19
∙ Exercise 16—Updated the information about the use
∙ Exercise 3—Improved the instructions for how to use a and yield of genetically modified crops; Edited questions
compound light microscope to emphasize critical thinking about genetically modi-
∙ Exercise 4—Added an objective for understanding the fied crops
relative sizes of cells and organelles; Added a boxed ∙ Exercise 17—Edited the text for improved readability
insert about surface-area-to-volume ratios in cells; Added and understanding; Added updates about phenylketon-
a boxed insert about cellular structure and human disease uria, Huntington’s disease, and familial hypercholester-
∙ Exercise 5—Reorganized and edited the text for emia; Added information and a new image to improve
increased understanding and readability students’ understanding of transposons
vi P–2
,∙ Exercise 18—Added an example of calculating Hardy- of Zygomycota; Expanded explanation of asexual versus
Weinberg frequencies sexual reproduction in Zygomycota; Revised figure 27.6b
∙ Exercise 19—Revised figure 19.2 to reflect recent to emphasize distinctions between sexual reproduction
discoveries about human evolution; Revised Procedure and asexual reproduction in bread molds; Expanded
19.2 to compare the sizes of brain cases in apes versus descriptions in Procedure 27.3 to help students better
humans; Added new figure 19.10 comparing skeletons interpret conjugation plates of Rhizopus; Revised figure
of humans and chimpanzees 27.9 to better distinguish between a sporangium and
conidiophore; Revised figure 27.13 to better distinguish
∙ Exercise 20—Clarified the definitions of soil types; asexual from sexual reproductive structures and processes;
Revised Procedure 20.3 to clarify calculations Revised figure 27.15 to emphasize sexual reproduction in
∙ Exercise 21—Edited the objectives for improved mushrooms; Included coverage and new procedures for
understanding examining Glomeromycota and other mycorrhizae; Added
descriptions and illustrations of mycorrhizae, including
∙ Exercise 22—Plagues; Added a boxed insert about arbuscular and ectomycorrhizae forms; Added new figure
Population Growth and Our Carbon Footprint; Updated 27.18e illustrating the structure of a lichen cross section
information in the text about population and population
growth; Expanded table 22.1 to include 10 generations ∙ Exercise 28—Updated classification information;
of bacterial growth; Emphasized and added a question Replaced figures 28.6 and 28.11 to help students better
about how population growth affects public health, eco- understand the information
nomic stability, social structure, and the well-being of our ∙ Exercise 29—Enhanced figures 29.1 and 29.11 for bet-
environment ter understanding
∙ Exercise 23—Edited text to improve readability and ∙ Exercise 30—Edited text for better readability and
accuracy understanding; Added a question about the distinguish-
∙ Exercise 24—Relabeled figure 24.6 to help students ing features of the groups of plants that students exam-
better understand the structure of bacterial cell walls; ined in this lab
Replaced figure 24.7 to better show steps of the Gram ∙ Exercise 31—Improved table 31.1 and figure 31.5 for
stain procedure; Revised the description and interpreta- better understanding; Improved “Dichotomous Key to
tion of antibiotic effectiveness apparent on bacterial Major Types of Fruit”; Replaced figure 31.18 with bet-
sensitivity plates ter, more informative images and information; Added a
∙ Exercise 25—Enhanced explanations of autotrophic question to emphasize the differences between mono-
versus heterotrophic protistans; Added new figure 25.1 cots and eudicots
to distinguish between algae and protozoans; Replaced ∙ Exercise 32—Edited text for improved readability and
figure 25.5 to better explain Chlamydomonas life cycle; understanding; Improved the description of the endoder-
Expanded the explanation of asexual versus sexual mis and its function; Replaced figure 32.1 to better show
reproduction in unicellular algae; Rearranged the descrip- the differences in tap versus fibrous root systems; Added
tions of brown algae and red algae to adhere to current scale-markers to figures; Edited the text to better empha-
phylogeny based on molecular taxonomic techniques size the differences between gymnosperms and angio-
∙ Exercise 26—Moved the coverage and procedures about sperms; Enhanced figure 32.16 for better understanding;
slime molds forward to better reflect current phylogeny; Added a question to emphasize the differences between
Added new figure 26.8 showing a scanning electron stomata and lenticels
micrograph that emphasizes the cell surface of a ciliate ∙ Exercise 33—Edited the Introduction for improved
∙ Exercise 27—Multiple clarifications of the structures and understanding; Removed the redundant instruction in
processes of asexual versus sexual reproduction in fungi; Procedure 33.2; Added an alternate procedure for making
Revised figure 27.1 to highlight aseptate hyphae; Revised a leaf-impression for counting and visualizing stomata
figure 27.2 to distinguish between sporangia and sporan- ∙ Exercise 34—Emphasized and added a question about
giophores; Expanded the coverage of the major phyla of how plants, unlike animals, have a small number of growth
fungi to include phylum Glomeromycota; Added new regulators that influence many traits; Added scale-markers
figure 27.3b to show infection by chytrid fungi; Revised to figures; Added information about the use of 2,4-D;
table 27.1 to include description and artwork of key repro- Added information about how gibberellic acid is important
ductive features of Glomeromycota; Updated figure 27.4 for increasing yields and profits for grape growers
to better illustrate stolons, spores, and sporangiophores
P–3 vii
, ∙ Exercise 35—Added text to improve understanding ∙ Exercise 43—Modified labels of figure 43.2 to show the
about bioassays and standard curves; Added a more spe- origin and insertion of triceps brachii
cific question to the “Inquiry-Based Learning” assign-
∙ Exercise 44—Revised figure 44.4 to emphasize how
ment; Added graph paper for reporting students’ results
changes of internal air pressure affect the mechanics
∙ Exercise 36—Clarified functional relationships among of breathing; Emphasized the value of measuring lung
spicules, spongin fibers, porocytes, and amoebocytes; capacity to understanding respiratory disease; Clarified
Expanded the description of water flow through a wall Procedure 44.2 to better describe the use of a spirometer
of a sponge as depicted in figure 36.4; Revised figure
∙ Exercise 45—Expanded the procedure for examining a
36.12 to show the relative size of cnidarian medusae;
cow heart to include the use of a heart model; Added a
Revised figure 36.16 to show the relative size of ephy-
new question to describe heartbeat sounds heard with
rae; Expanded the description of corals to include infor-
a stethoscope; Revised figure 45.2 to better show dif-
mation about coral bleaching and coral symbioses with
ferences in the walls of arteries versus veins; Revised
algae
Procedure 45.2 to better describe the steps to measure
∙ Exercise 37—Significantly revised the sequence of cover- blood pressure; Added new figure 45.7 to illustrate the
age of invertebrate phyla to adhere to current phylogeny anatomy of venous valves; Updated the table for scoring
based on molecular taxonomic techniques; Included risk factors of cardiovascular disease; Questions for Fur-
taxonomic classifications of lophophorazoa and ecdy- ther Thought and Inquiry now include library research
sozoa; Positioned coverage of nematodes to immediately to understand diseases of the heart and circulatory
precede coverage of arthropods, as both are now consid- system
ered ecdysozoans; Mollusk coverage now immediately
∙ Exercise 46—Quantified differences in retinal resolu-
follows that of flatworms, as they are both considered
tions among humans and other animals; Described and
lophophorazoans; Added new figure 37.3 to illustrate a
distinguished sensorineural versus nerve deafness;
trochophore larva; Revised table 37.1 to replace nematode
Clarified the steps of Procedure 46.8 to better determine
descriptions with mollusk descriptions; Replaced figure
nerve deafness; Updated figure 46.6 to show the size of
37.3 with new art illustrating flatworm anatomy; Replaced
the ear drum; Modified Procedure 46.1 to include safety
figure 38.5 with new art illustrating molluscan radula
procedures
∙ Exercise 38—Coverage of nematodes now follows that
∙ Exercise 47—Expanded Questions for Further Study
of annelids
and Inquiry include an analysis of bipedalism
∙ Exercise 39—Revised figure 39.16 to clarify position of
∙ Exercise 48—Added new figure 48.7 to include art and
retinula cells
a photograph showing the structure of microvilli; Rela-
∙ Exercise 40—Revised legend of figure 40.18 to better beled figure 48.6 to show the common bile duct
describe the evolution of jaws among fish ancestors;
∙ Exercise 49—Added new figure 49.4 to illustrate kidney
Changed common name of chordate class Actinopteriy-
anatomy with sagittal section
gii from boney fish to ray-finned fish; Added new table
40.3 to provide space for students to organize classes of ∙ Exercise 50—Clarified the distinction between an
vertebrates and their major characteristics embryo and a zygote; Expanded the description of gray
crescent formation; Added new figure 50.5 to illustrate
∙ Exercise 41—Revised Procedure 41.1 to emphasize
the formation of a gray crescent; Added new figure 50.8
safety when using stains; Revised figure 41.5 to clearly
to illustrate differences between the vegetal pole and
label nuclei of simple columnar epithelial cells; Clari-
animal pole; Relabeled figure 50.9 to clearly distinguish
fied the varied functions of connective tissues; Expanded
the endoderm and mesoderm; Quantified the egg sizes
Procedure 41.3 to describe the appearance of red blood
among birds to emphasize variety in egg anatomy; Rela-
cells and leukocytes on prepared slides; Included new
beled figure 50.12 to show albumin
terminology of central canals in place of Haversian sys-
tems of bones ∙ Exercise 51—Added questions to encourage students to
think about agonistic behaviors in humans and why it is
∙ Exercise 42—Clarified the differences between ten-
important to try to integrate all aspects of an organism’s
dons and ligaments; Added new figure 42.1 to illustrate
behavior
the parts of the human skeleton; Revised figure 42.2
to include labels of the ileum, ischium, and pubis; ∙ Appendix II Updated information about the metric
Expanded the Questions for Further Study and Inquiry system
viii P–4
,Biology
Laboratory Manual
Thirteenth Edition
Darrell S. Vodopich
Baylor University
Randy Moore
University of Minnesota
,Contents
Preface v Exercise 16
Teaching and Learning Tools ix Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: DNA Isolation and Genetic
Transformation 175
Welcome to the Biology Laboratory xii
Exercise 1 Exercise 17
Genetics: The Principles of Mendel 183
Scientific Method: The Process of Science 1
Exercise 2 Exercise 18
Evolution: Natural Selection and Morphological Change in
Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis 11
Green Algae 199
Exercise 3 Exercise 19
The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy 21
Human Evolution: Skull Examination 211
Exercise 4 Exercise 20
The Cell: Structure and Function 33
Ecology: Diversity and Interaction in Plant Communities 223
Exercise 5 Exercise 21
Solutions, Acids, and Bases: The pH Scale 51
Community Succession 233
Exercise 6 Exercise 22
Biologically Important Molecules: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and
Population Growth: Limitations of the Environment 241
Nucleic Acids 59
Exercise 7 Exercise 23
Pollution: The Effects of Chemical, Thermal, and Acidic Pollution 249
Separating Organic Compounds: Column Chromatography, Paper
Chromatography, and Gel Electrophoresis 73
Exercise 24
Survey of Prokaryotes: Domains Archaea and Bacteria 259
Exercise 8
Spectrophotometry: Identifying Solutes and Determining Their
Concentration 83 Exercise 25
Survey of Protists: Algal Autotrophs 275
Exercise 9
Diffusion and Osmosis: Passive Movement of Molecules in Biological Exercise 26
Systems 95 Survey of Protists: Protozoan Heterotrophs 289
Exercise 10 Exercise 27
Cellular Membranes: Effects of Physical and Chemical Stress 109 Survey of the Kingdom Fungi: Molds, Sac Fungi, Mushrooms, and
Lichens 299
Exercise 11
Enzymes: Factors Affecting the Rate of Activity 117 Exercise 28
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Liverworts, Mosses, and Hornworts of
Phyla Hepatophyta, Bryophyta, and Anthocerophyta 315
Exercise 12
Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation of Organic
Molecules 129 Exercise 29
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Seedless Vascular Plants of Phyla
Pterophyta and Lycophyta 325
Exercise 13
Photosynthesis: Pigment Separation, Starch Production, and CO2
Uptake 141 Exercise 30
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Gymnosperms of Phyla Cycadophyta,
Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and Gnetophyta 337
Exercise 14
Mitosis: Replication of Eukaryotic Cells 153
Exercise 31
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Angiosperms 347
Exercise 15
Meiosis: Reduction Division and Gametogenesis 163
TOC–1 iii
,Exercise 32 Exercise 43
Plant Anatomy: Vegetative Structure of Vascular Plants 363 Human Biology: Muscles and Muscle Contraction 507
Exercise 33 Exercise 44
Plant Physiology: Transpiration 377 Human Biology: Breathing 515
Exercise 34 Exercise 45
Plant Physiology: Tropisms, Nutrition, and Growth Regulators 385 Human Biology: Circulation and Blood Pressure 525
Exercise 35 Exercise 46
Bioassay: Measuring Physiologically Active Substances 397 Human Biology: Sensory Perception 539
Exercise 36 Exercise 47
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Porifera and Cnidaria 403 Vertebrate Anatomy: External Features and Skeletal
System of the Rat 549
Exercise 37
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Platyhelminthes and Exercise 48
Mollusca 419 Vertebrate Anatomy: Muscles and Internal Organs of the Rat 557
Exercise 38 Exercise 49
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Annelida and Nematoda 435 Vertebrate Anatomy: Urogenital and Circulatory Systems of the Rat 567
Exercise 39 Exercise 50
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phylum Arthropoda 449 Embryology: Comparative Morphologies and Strategies
of Development 579
Exercise 40
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Echinodermata and Exercise 51
Chordata 463 Animal Behavior: Taxis, Kinesis, and Agonistic Behavior 589
Exercise 41 Appendix I
Vertebrate Animal Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Dissection of a Fetal Pig 595
Tissues 483
Appendix II
Exercise 42 Conversion of Metric Units to English Units 602
Human Biology: The Human Skeletal System 499
iv TOC–2
,Preface
Contents
W e have designed this laboratory manual for an intro-
ductory biology course with a broad survey of basic
laboratory techniques. The experiments and procedures are
biology. We’ve tried to guide students from observations to
conclusions, to help students make their own discoveries,
and to make the transition from observation to understand-
simple, safe, easy to perform, and especially appropriate for ing biological principles. But discussions and interactions
large classes. Few experiments require more than one class between student and instructor are major components of a
meeting to complete the procedure. Each exercise includes successful laboratory experience. Be sure to examine the
many photographs and illustrations, traditional topics, and “Questions for Further Study and Inquiry” in each exercise.
experiments that help students do biology as they learn about We hope they will help you expand students’ perceptions
life. Procedures within each exercise are numerous and dis- that each exercise has broad application to their world.
crete so that an exercise can be tailored to the needs of the stu-
dents, the style of the instructor, and the facilities available.
DIGITAL INTEGRATION
TO THE STUDENT Today’s students are digital learners, and this lab manual
integrates that learning with interesting activities that help
We hope this manual is an interesting guide to many areas
students learn about biology. Virtually every exercise of this
of biology. As you read about these areas, you’ll probably
manual is accompanied by tailor-made digital resources,
spend equal amounts of time observing and experimenting.
including assignable questions and a variety of high-definition
Don’t hesitate to go beyond the observations that we’ve
videos, PowerPoint images, and other resources that demon-
outlined—your future success as a scientist and an informed
strate basic techniques, emphasize biological principles, test
citizen depends on your ability to seek and notice things that
for understanding, and engage students as they learn biology
others may overlook. Now is the time to develop this ability
in the laboratory.
with a mixture of hard work and relaxed observation. Have
Digital resources are available to instructors at connect
fun, and learning will come easily. Also, remember that this
.mheducation.com. Instructors will want to assign these
manual is designed with your instructors in mind as well. Go
resources to help students know what they’ll be doing, what
to them often with questions—their experience is a valuable
principles they’ll be investigating, and what concepts they’ll
tool that you should use as you work.
need to understand before coming to lab.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
This manual’s simple, straightforward approach emphasizes
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
experiments and activities that optimize students’ investment Throughout the manual, we have expanded and improved
of time and your investment of supplies, equipment, and several of the most popular and effective features of
preparation. Simple, safe, and straightforward experiments previous editions, including
are most effective if you interpret the work in depth. Most ∙ Learning Objectives have been updated to provide an
experiments can be done easily by a student in 2 to 3 hours. overview of what students will do and learn in the exercise.
Terminology, structures, photographs, and concepts are lim-
ited to those that the student can readily observe and under- ∙ Procedures and Doing Biology Yourself require stu-
stand. In each exercise we have included a few activities dents to do biology as they apply skills they’ve learned to
requiring a greater investment of effort if resources are avail- develop and study hypotheses they formulate about biology.
able, but omitting them will not detract from the objectives. ∙ Questions throughout each exercise encourage students to
This manual functions best with an instructor’s guid- pause and think about their data and what they’ve learned.
ance and is not an autotutorial system. We've provided back-
ground information for context and understanding, but the ∙ Questions for Further Study and Inquiry at the
focus of each exercise remains on students doing interesting end of each exercise help students apply what they’ve
and meaningful activities to learn basic information about learned to broader topics and issues in biology.
P–1 v
,∙ Writing to Learn Biology encourages students to use writ- ∙ Exercise 6—Replaced figure 6.9 with a better, more
ing to develop their ideas about what they learned in lab. informative image; Added a table for students to sum-
marize the biochemical tests they performed in the lab;
∙ Caution and Safety First icons make students aware of Added a question to emphasize the significance of acid
safety issues associated with the procedures they’ll use precipitation; Added a boxed insert about using the
in lab. iodine test to detect counterfeit money; Added a boxed
∙ Boxed readings titled Inquiry-Based Learning encour- insert about dietary fats
age students to apply what they’ve learned to indepen- ∙ Exercise 7—Reorganized the procedures for better use
dently answer questions about intriguing biological topics. of time in the lab
∙ Updated health-related exercises help students better ∙ Exercise 9—Revised the Introduction and Diffusion
understand how topics such as genetics, cell biology, sections to emphasize the relevance of osmosis and dif-
blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and their risk of cardio- fusion to general physiology; Enhanced the safety notice
vascular disease relate to our health. to use appropriate PPE; Added question for problem-
∙ Several illustrations have been replaced with photographs solving based on experimental data; Revised captions for
to provide more realistic images to support the Exercise figures 9.7 and 9.9 to emphasize the flow of water into
content. and out of cells
∙ Approximately 90 illustrations and photos have been ∙ Exercise 10—Revised the Introduction to reinforce
revised. understanding of how membranes regulate the move-
ment of materials into and out of cells
∙ Questions within procedures now include lines on which
students can write their answers. ∙ Exercise 12—Replaced figure 12.1 (i.e., rising bread
dough) to show the production of carbon dioxide; Edited
∙ An assignable, updated library of videos and Connect
questions for improved understanding; Updated the ter-
questions helps students prepare for lab and understand
minology for the citric acid cycle
the instruments and techniques that will be important
for their investigations. Instructors may assign these ∙ Exercise 13—Replaced figure 13.1 to emphasize the
videos before class time to help ensure that students production of oxygen by photosynthesis; Edited the text
arrive prepared for lab. for improved readability and understanding; Corrected
figure 13.10 for improved entry of data by students
Exercise-Specific Changes ∙ Exercise 14—Enhanced the readability of the Introduc-
tion; Expanded the description of chromatids versus
∙ Exercise 1—Edited text for improved readability and chromosomes; Added new figure 14.6 showing the
relevance (e.g., climate change, COVID-19); Improved metaphase plate and chromosomal alignment
questions to help students better understand what sci-
∙ Exercise 15—Revised the Introduction to emphasize
ence is and how science is done
the value of genetic recombination for adaptation to
∙ Exercise 2—Improved the readability of the text and the changing environments; Revised labels of figure 15.1 to
presentation of metric units; Specified the differences better distinguish maternal homologues from paternal
in using a triple-beam balance and an electronic scale; homologues; Revised figure 15.2 to emphasize (1) the
Emphasized the importance of significant figures in replication of chromosomes and (2) the formation of
measurements; Emphasized that in biology, the mean is chromatids; Added new figure 15.6 of spermatogenesis
usually preferred to the median when reporting descrip- to emphasize the steps of maturation from spermatogo-
tive statistics; Added a question about measurements of nium to spermatozoa
COVID-19
∙ Exercise 16—Updated the information about the use
∙ Exercise 3—Improved the instructions for how to use a and yield of genetically modified crops; Edited questions
compound light microscope to emphasize critical thinking about genetically modi-
∙ Exercise 4—Added an objective for understanding the fied crops
relative sizes of cells and organelles; Added a boxed ∙ Exercise 17—Edited the text for improved readability
insert about surface-area-to-volume ratios in cells; Added and understanding; Added updates about phenylketon-
a boxed insert about cellular structure and human disease uria, Huntington’s disease, and familial hypercholester-
∙ Exercise 5—Reorganized and edited the text for emia; Added information and a new image to improve
increased understanding and readability students’ understanding of transposons
vi P–2
,∙ Exercise 18—Added an example of calculating Hardy- of Zygomycota; Expanded explanation of asexual versus
Weinberg frequencies sexual reproduction in Zygomycota; Revised figure 27.6b
∙ Exercise 19—Revised figure 19.2 to reflect recent to emphasize distinctions between sexual reproduction
discoveries about human evolution; Revised Procedure and asexual reproduction in bread molds; Expanded
19.2 to compare the sizes of brain cases in apes versus descriptions in Procedure 27.3 to help students better
humans; Added new figure 19.10 comparing skeletons interpret conjugation plates of Rhizopus; Revised figure
of humans and chimpanzees 27.9 to better distinguish between a sporangium and
conidiophore; Revised figure 27.13 to better distinguish
∙ Exercise 20—Clarified the definitions of soil types; asexual from sexual reproductive structures and processes;
Revised Procedure 20.3 to clarify calculations Revised figure 27.15 to emphasize sexual reproduction in
∙ Exercise 21—Edited the objectives for improved mushrooms; Included coverage and new procedures for
understanding examining Glomeromycota and other mycorrhizae; Added
descriptions and illustrations of mycorrhizae, including
∙ Exercise 22—Plagues; Added a boxed insert about arbuscular and ectomycorrhizae forms; Added new figure
Population Growth and Our Carbon Footprint; Updated 27.18e illustrating the structure of a lichen cross section
information in the text about population and population
growth; Expanded table 22.1 to include 10 generations ∙ Exercise 28—Updated classification information;
of bacterial growth; Emphasized and added a question Replaced figures 28.6 and 28.11 to help students better
about how population growth affects public health, eco- understand the information
nomic stability, social structure, and the well-being of our ∙ Exercise 29—Enhanced figures 29.1 and 29.11 for bet-
environment ter understanding
∙ Exercise 23—Edited text to improve readability and ∙ Exercise 30—Edited text for better readability and
accuracy understanding; Added a question about the distinguish-
∙ Exercise 24—Relabeled figure 24.6 to help students ing features of the groups of plants that students exam-
better understand the structure of bacterial cell walls; ined in this lab
Replaced figure 24.7 to better show steps of the Gram ∙ Exercise 31—Improved table 31.1 and figure 31.5 for
stain procedure; Revised the description and interpreta- better understanding; Improved “Dichotomous Key to
tion of antibiotic effectiveness apparent on bacterial Major Types of Fruit”; Replaced figure 31.18 with bet-
sensitivity plates ter, more informative images and information; Added a
∙ Exercise 25—Enhanced explanations of autotrophic question to emphasize the differences between mono-
versus heterotrophic protistans; Added new figure 25.1 cots and eudicots
to distinguish between algae and protozoans; Replaced ∙ Exercise 32—Edited text for improved readability and
figure 25.5 to better explain Chlamydomonas life cycle; understanding; Improved the description of the endoder-
Expanded the explanation of asexual versus sexual mis and its function; Replaced figure 32.1 to better show
reproduction in unicellular algae; Rearranged the descrip- the differences in tap versus fibrous root systems; Added
tions of brown algae and red algae to adhere to current scale-markers to figures; Edited the text to better empha-
phylogeny based on molecular taxonomic techniques size the differences between gymnosperms and angio-
∙ Exercise 26—Moved the coverage and procedures about sperms; Enhanced figure 32.16 for better understanding;
slime molds forward to better reflect current phylogeny; Added a question to emphasize the differences between
Added new figure 26.8 showing a scanning electron stomata and lenticels
micrograph that emphasizes the cell surface of a ciliate ∙ Exercise 33—Edited the Introduction for improved
∙ Exercise 27—Multiple clarifications of the structures and understanding; Removed the redundant instruction in
processes of asexual versus sexual reproduction in fungi; Procedure 33.2; Added an alternate procedure for making
Revised figure 27.1 to highlight aseptate hyphae; Revised a leaf-impression for counting and visualizing stomata
figure 27.2 to distinguish between sporangia and sporan- ∙ Exercise 34—Emphasized and added a question about
giophores; Expanded the coverage of the major phyla of how plants, unlike animals, have a small number of growth
fungi to include phylum Glomeromycota; Added new regulators that influence many traits; Added scale-markers
figure 27.3b to show infection by chytrid fungi; Revised to figures; Added information about the use of 2,4-D;
table 27.1 to include description and artwork of key repro- Added information about how gibberellic acid is important
ductive features of Glomeromycota; Updated figure 27.4 for increasing yields and profits for grape growers
to better illustrate stolons, spores, and sporangiophores
P–3 vii
, ∙ Exercise 35—Added text to improve understanding ∙ Exercise 43—Modified labels of figure 43.2 to show the
about bioassays and standard curves; Added a more spe- origin and insertion of triceps brachii
cific question to the “Inquiry-Based Learning” assign-
∙ Exercise 44—Revised figure 44.4 to emphasize how
ment; Added graph paper for reporting students’ results
changes of internal air pressure affect the mechanics
∙ Exercise 36—Clarified functional relationships among of breathing; Emphasized the value of measuring lung
spicules, spongin fibers, porocytes, and amoebocytes; capacity to understanding respiratory disease; Clarified
Expanded the description of water flow through a wall Procedure 44.2 to better describe the use of a spirometer
of a sponge as depicted in figure 36.4; Revised figure
∙ Exercise 45—Expanded the procedure for examining a
36.12 to show the relative size of cnidarian medusae;
cow heart to include the use of a heart model; Added a
Revised figure 36.16 to show the relative size of ephy-
new question to describe heartbeat sounds heard with
rae; Expanded the description of corals to include infor-
a stethoscope; Revised figure 45.2 to better show dif-
mation about coral bleaching and coral symbioses with
ferences in the walls of arteries versus veins; Revised
algae
Procedure 45.2 to better describe the steps to measure
∙ Exercise 37—Significantly revised the sequence of cover- blood pressure; Added new figure 45.7 to illustrate the
age of invertebrate phyla to adhere to current phylogeny anatomy of venous valves; Updated the table for scoring
based on molecular taxonomic techniques; Included risk factors of cardiovascular disease; Questions for Fur-
taxonomic classifications of lophophorazoa and ecdy- ther Thought and Inquiry now include library research
sozoa; Positioned coverage of nematodes to immediately to understand diseases of the heart and circulatory
precede coverage of arthropods, as both are now consid- system
ered ecdysozoans; Mollusk coverage now immediately
∙ Exercise 46—Quantified differences in retinal resolu-
follows that of flatworms, as they are both considered
tions among humans and other animals; Described and
lophophorazoans; Added new figure 37.3 to illustrate a
distinguished sensorineural versus nerve deafness;
trochophore larva; Revised table 37.1 to replace nematode
Clarified the steps of Procedure 46.8 to better determine
descriptions with mollusk descriptions; Replaced figure
nerve deafness; Updated figure 46.6 to show the size of
37.3 with new art illustrating flatworm anatomy; Replaced
the ear drum; Modified Procedure 46.1 to include safety
figure 38.5 with new art illustrating molluscan radula
procedures
∙ Exercise 38—Coverage of nematodes now follows that
∙ Exercise 47—Expanded Questions for Further Study
of annelids
and Inquiry include an analysis of bipedalism
∙ Exercise 39—Revised figure 39.16 to clarify position of
∙ Exercise 48—Added new figure 48.7 to include art and
retinula cells
a photograph showing the structure of microvilli; Rela-
∙ Exercise 40—Revised legend of figure 40.18 to better beled figure 48.6 to show the common bile duct
describe the evolution of jaws among fish ancestors;
∙ Exercise 49—Added new figure 49.4 to illustrate kidney
Changed common name of chordate class Actinopteriy-
anatomy with sagittal section
gii from boney fish to ray-finned fish; Added new table
40.3 to provide space for students to organize classes of ∙ Exercise 50—Clarified the distinction between an
vertebrates and their major characteristics embryo and a zygote; Expanded the description of gray
crescent formation; Added new figure 50.5 to illustrate
∙ Exercise 41—Revised Procedure 41.1 to emphasize
the formation of a gray crescent; Added new figure 50.8
safety when using stains; Revised figure 41.5 to clearly
to illustrate differences between the vegetal pole and
label nuclei of simple columnar epithelial cells; Clari-
animal pole; Relabeled figure 50.9 to clearly distinguish
fied the varied functions of connective tissues; Expanded
the endoderm and mesoderm; Quantified the egg sizes
Procedure 41.3 to describe the appearance of red blood
among birds to emphasize variety in egg anatomy; Rela-
cells and leukocytes on prepared slides; Included new
beled figure 50.12 to show albumin
terminology of central canals in place of Haversian sys-
tems of bones ∙ Exercise 51—Added questions to encourage students to
think about agonistic behaviors in humans and why it is
∙ Exercise 42—Clarified the differences between ten-
important to try to integrate all aspects of an organism’s
dons and ligaments; Added new figure 42.1 to illustrate
behavior
the parts of the human skeleton; Revised figure 42.2
to include labels of the ileum, ischium, and pubis; ∙ Appendix II Updated information about the metric
Expanded the Questions for Further Study and Inquiry system
viii P–4
