Examl 4:l BIOl 202/l BIO202l (NEWl 2025/l
2026l Update)l Humanl Anatomyl andl
Physiologyl IIl Guide|l Questionsl &l
Answers|l Gradel A|l 100%l Correctl
(Verifiedl Solutions)-l GCU
QUESTION
Whatl isl thel significancel ofl thel epitheliall cellsl ofl thel DCTl notl havingl microvilli?
Answer:
epitheliall cellsl havel farl fewerl microvillil sol therel isl lessl surfacel areal andl thereforel lessl
reabsorption
QUESTION
Listl ANDl describel thel threel processesl ofl thel DCT.
Answer:
1.l Activel secretionl ofl ions,l acids,l drugs,l andl toxins
2.l Selectivel reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml andl calciuml ionsl froml tubularl fluid
Aldosteronel -l stimulatesl reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml backl intol thel bloodl -l waterl follows
Muchl morel onl thisl soon!
PTH/calcitriol
*Calcitrioll -l forml ofl vitl D3l thatl stimulatesl absorptionl ofl calciuml backl intol blood
3.l Selectivel reabsorptionl ofl water:
Concentratesl tubularl fluid
ADHl (Antidiureticl Hormone)
Bringsl waterl backl intol thel blood
QUESTION
Illustratel thel Na+/K+l pumpl inl thel DCTl andl howl aldosteronel affectsl itsl action.
Answer:
,sodiuml reabsorbedl inl exchangel forl potassiuml ionsl thesel ionl pumpsl arel stimulatedl byl
aldosteronel
-aldosteronel regulatedl reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml ions,l linkedl tol thel passivel lossl ofl
potassiuml ionsl
-aldosteronel takesl sodiuml froml thel urinel andl putsl itl backl intol thel blood,l savesl sodium
-potassiuml diffusesl froml thel peritubularl capillaryl andl getsl pumpedl outl ofl thel celll intol
thel tubularl fluid
QUESTION
Whatl ionl isl "lost"l inl thel urinel duel tol thel effectsl ofl aldosterone?
Answer:
potassiuml becausel ofl interferencel withl thel sodiuml potassiuml pump
QUESTION
Describel thel releasel andl effectsl ofl ADHl inl al welll hydratedl vs.l al dehydratedl individual.
Answer:
Whenl welll hydratedl ADHl willl decreasel producingl morel urinel
Whenl dehydratedl ADHl willl increasel producingl lessl urine
QUESTION
Summarizel thel goalsl ofl urinel production,l includingl thel threel organicl wastel productsl
(andl wherel theyl comel from).
Answer:
Thel goall ofl urinel production:
Isl tol maintainl homeostasis
Byl regulatingl volumel andl compositionl ofl blood
Includingl excretionl ofl metabolicl wastel products
Organicl Wastel Products
Arel dissolvedl inl bloodstream
Arel eliminatedl onlyl whilel dissolvedl inl urine
Removall isl accompaniedl byl waterl loss
1.l urea-breakdownl ofl aminol acids
2.l creatinine-breakdownl ofl creatinel phosphatel froml celll resp.
3.l uricl acid-wastel productl duringl recyclingl ofl RNA
,QUESTION
Justl howl concentratedl isl humanl urine?l Howl wouldl thisl comparel tol al desertl rat'sl urine?
Answer:
Usuallyl producel aboutl 1.2l Liters/dayl ofl concentratedl urine:
al desertl ratsl urinel wouldl bel muchl morel concentratedl duel tol thel lengthl andl
permeabilityl ofl theirl loopl ofl henle
QUESTION
Explainl thel conceptl ofl thel Transportl maximuml (Tm)l andl renall thresholdl ofl thel kidneyl
andl relatel thisl tol Diabetesl Mellitus.
Answer:
Ifl nutrientl concentrationsl risel inl tubularl fluid:l reabsorptionl ratesl increasel untill carrierl
proteinsl arel saturatedl
-concentrationl highl thanl transportl maxium:l exceedsl reabsorptivel abilitiesl ofl nephron,l
somel materiall willl remainl inl thel tubularl fluidl andl appearl inl thel urine
-DETERMINESl RENALl THRESHOLD
--Diabetesl Mellitus=tol passl through,l willl resultl inl glycosurial (thel appearancel ofl glucosel
inl urine),l thel renall thresholdl forl glucosel isl reachedl andl thereforel itl appearsl inl urine
QUESTION
Herel itl isl again:l Thel Reninl -l Angiotensinl -l Aldosteronel System.l Thisl isl thel secondl
timel youl havel beenl exposedl tol itl inl al fairl amountl ofl detail.l Drawl it,l makel al flowl
chart,l writel al novel,l orl makel upl al songl ofl howl itl isl alll interrelated.l Dol whateverl itl
takesl tol understandl ALLl ofl thel hormones,l targetsl ofl thel hormones,l negativel feedbackl
mechanisms,l andl associatedl changesl inl bloodl pressure.
Answer:
Triggeredl byl lowl bloodl pressure.l Reninl inl kidneyl bindsl tol angiotensinogenl thenl
convertsl itl tol angiotensinl Il inl thel bloodstream.l Angiotensinl Il entersl lungsl itl convertsl
intol angiotensinl IIl (activel hormone).l Angiotensinl IIl goesl tol alll thel bloodl vesselsl andl
vasoconstricts,l tellsl youl you'rel thirsty
QUESTION
Howl dol ANPl andl BNPl counterl thel effectsl ofl thel RAAl System?
, Answer:
Thel majorl physiologicall effectsl ofl ANPl andl BNPl arel vasodilation,l natriuresis,l andl
inhibitionl ofl thel renin-angiotensin-aldosteronel (RAA)l andl thel sympatheticl nervousl
systems;l alll ofl whichl arel supposedl tol suppressl thel progressionl ofl heartl failure
QUESTION
Whatl threel structuresl makel upl thel urinaryl tract?
Answer:
1.l Ureters
2.l Urinaryl Bladder
3.l Urethra
QUESTION
Relatel thel painl ofl al kidneyl stonel tol thel anatomyl andl physiologyl ofl thel ureter.
Answer:
Ifl thel stonel isl smalll enoughl tol pass,l butl largel enoughl tol causel severl pain,l strongl painl
medicationl isl prescribed.l Stonesl thatl arel tool largel tol passl downl thel uretersl mustl bel
handledl differently.l Al ureteroscopel canl gol upl intol thel ureterl andl removel thel stonel
mechanically.l Al nephroscopel canl gol upl intol thel kidneyl andl crushl thel stonel intol
smallerl piecesl thatl canl passl outl ofl thel body.l Lastly,l shockl wavel lithotripsyl isl al
treatmentl thatl involvesl submergingl thel patientl inl al bathl ofl waterl thatl hasl strongl shockl
wavesl movingl throughl it.l Thel shockl wavesl pulverizel thel stonesl froml outsidel ofl thel
bodyl allowingl thel smallerl piecesl tol passl outl ofl thel body.
QUESTION
Summarizel thel causes,l symptoms,l andl treatmentsl forl kidneyl stones.
Answer:
Causes:l Thel leadingl causel ofl kidneyl stonesl isl al lackl ofl waterl inl thel body.l Anl
excessivelyl acidicl environmentl inl urinel canl leadl tol thel formationl ofl kidneyl stones.l
Symptoms:l Severel painl inl thel groin,l bloodl inl urine,l WBCl inl urine,l burningl inl urine
Treatments:l Al ureteroscopel canl gol upl intol thel ureterl andl removel thel stonel
mechanically.l Al nephroscopel canl gol upl intol thel kidneyl andl crushl thel stonel intol
smallerl piecesl thatl canl passl outl ofl thel body.l Lastly,l shockl wavel lithotripsyl isl al
treatmentl thatl involvesl submergingl thel patientl inl al bathl ofl waterl thatl hasl strongl shockl
2026l Update)l Humanl Anatomyl andl
Physiologyl IIl Guide|l Questionsl &l
Answers|l Gradel A|l 100%l Correctl
(Verifiedl Solutions)-l GCU
QUESTION
Whatl isl thel significancel ofl thel epitheliall cellsl ofl thel DCTl notl havingl microvilli?
Answer:
epitheliall cellsl havel farl fewerl microvillil sol therel isl lessl surfacel areal andl thereforel lessl
reabsorption
QUESTION
Listl ANDl describel thel threel processesl ofl thel DCT.
Answer:
1.l Activel secretionl ofl ions,l acids,l drugs,l andl toxins
2.l Selectivel reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml andl calciuml ionsl froml tubularl fluid
Aldosteronel -l stimulatesl reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml backl intol thel bloodl -l waterl follows
Muchl morel onl thisl soon!
PTH/calcitriol
*Calcitrioll -l forml ofl vitl D3l thatl stimulatesl absorptionl ofl calciuml backl intol blood
3.l Selectivel reabsorptionl ofl water:
Concentratesl tubularl fluid
ADHl (Antidiureticl Hormone)
Bringsl waterl backl intol thel blood
QUESTION
Illustratel thel Na+/K+l pumpl inl thel DCTl andl howl aldosteronel affectsl itsl action.
Answer:
,sodiuml reabsorbedl inl exchangel forl potassiuml ionsl thesel ionl pumpsl arel stimulatedl byl
aldosteronel
-aldosteronel regulatedl reabsorptionl ofl sodiuml ions,l linkedl tol thel passivel lossl ofl
potassiuml ionsl
-aldosteronel takesl sodiuml froml thel urinel andl putsl itl backl intol thel blood,l savesl sodium
-potassiuml diffusesl froml thel peritubularl capillaryl andl getsl pumpedl outl ofl thel celll intol
thel tubularl fluid
QUESTION
Whatl ionl isl "lost"l inl thel urinel duel tol thel effectsl ofl aldosterone?
Answer:
potassiuml becausel ofl interferencel withl thel sodiuml potassiuml pump
QUESTION
Describel thel releasel andl effectsl ofl ADHl inl al welll hydratedl vs.l al dehydratedl individual.
Answer:
Whenl welll hydratedl ADHl willl decreasel producingl morel urinel
Whenl dehydratedl ADHl willl increasel producingl lessl urine
QUESTION
Summarizel thel goalsl ofl urinel production,l includingl thel threel organicl wastel productsl
(andl wherel theyl comel from).
Answer:
Thel goall ofl urinel production:
Isl tol maintainl homeostasis
Byl regulatingl volumel andl compositionl ofl blood
Includingl excretionl ofl metabolicl wastel products
Organicl Wastel Products
Arel dissolvedl inl bloodstream
Arel eliminatedl onlyl whilel dissolvedl inl urine
Removall isl accompaniedl byl waterl loss
1.l urea-breakdownl ofl aminol acids
2.l creatinine-breakdownl ofl creatinel phosphatel froml celll resp.
3.l uricl acid-wastel productl duringl recyclingl ofl RNA
,QUESTION
Justl howl concentratedl isl humanl urine?l Howl wouldl thisl comparel tol al desertl rat'sl urine?
Answer:
Usuallyl producel aboutl 1.2l Liters/dayl ofl concentratedl urine:
al desertl ratsl urinel wouldl bel muchl morel concentratedl duel tol thel lengthl andl
permeabilityl ofl theirl loopl ofl henle
QUESTION
Explainl thel conceptl ofl thel Transportl maximuml (Tm)l andl renall thresholdl ofl thel kidneyl
andl relatel thisl tol Diabetesl Mellitus.
Answer:
Ifl nutrientl concentrationsl risel inl tubularl fluid:l reabsorptionl ratesl increasel untill carrierl
proteinsl arel saturatedl
-concentrationl highl thanl transportl maxium:l exceedsl reabsorptivel abilitiesl ofl nephron,l
somel materiall willl remainl inl thel tubularl fluidl andl appearl inl thel urine
-DETERMINESl RENALl THRESHOLD
--Diabetesl Mellitus=tol passl through,l willl resultl inl glycosurial (thel appearancel ofl glucosel
inl urine),l thel renall thresholdl forl glucosel isl reachedl andl thereforel itl appearsl inl urine
QUESTION
Herel itl isl again:l Thel Reninl -l Angiotensinl -l Aldosteronel System.l Thisl isl thel secondl
timel youl havel beenl exposedl tol itl inl al fairl amountl ofl detail.l Drawl it,l makel al flowl
chart,l writel al novel,l orl makel upl al songl ofl howl itl isl alll interrelated.l Dol whateverl itl
takesl tol understandl ALLl ofl thel hormones,l targetsl ofl thel hormones,l negativel feedbackl
mechanisms,l andl associatedl changesl inl bloodl pressure.
Answer:
Triggeredl byl lowl bloodl pressure.l Reninl inl kidneyl bindsl tol angiotensinogenl thenl
convertsl itl tol angiotensinl Il inl thel bloodstream.l Angiotensinl Il entersl lungsl itl convertsl
intol angiotensinl IIl (activel hormone).l Angiotensinl IIl goesl tol alll thel bloodl vesselsl andl
vasoconstricts,l tellsl youl you'rel thirsty
QUESTION
Howl dol ANPl andl BNPl counterl thel effectsl ofl thel RAAl System?
, Answer:
Thel majorl physiologicall effectsl ofl ANPl andl BNPl arel vasodilation,l natriuresis,l andl
inhibitionl ofl thel renin-angiotensin-aldosteronel (RAA)l andl thel sympatheticl nervousl
systems;l alll ofl whichl arel supposedl tol suppressl thel progressionl ofl heartl failure
QUESTION
Whatl threel structuresl makel upl thel urinaryl tract?
Answer:
1.l Ureters
2.l Urinaryl Bladder
3.l Urethra
QUESTION
Relatel thel painl ofl al kidneyl stonel tol thel anatomyl andl physiologyl ofl thel ureter.
Answer:
Ifl thel stonel isl smalll enoughl tol pass,l butl largel enoughl tol causel severl pain,l strongl painl
medicationl isl prescribed.l Stonesl thatl arel tool largel tol passl downl thel uretersl mustl bel
handledl differently.l Al ureteroscopel canl gol upl intol thel ureterl andl removel thel stonel
mechanically.l Al nephroscopel canl gol upl intol thel kidneyl andl crushl thel stonel intol
smallerl piecesl thatl canl passl outl ofl thel body.l Lastly,l shockl wavel lithotripsyl isl al
treatmentl thatl involvesl submergingl thel patientl inl al bathl ofl waterl thatl hasl strongl shockl
wavesl movingl throughl it.l Thel shockl wavesl pulverizel thel stonesl froml outsidel ofl thel
bodyl allowingl thel smallerl piecesl tol passl outl ofl thel body.
QUESTION
Summarizel thel causes,l symptoms,l andl treatmentsl forl kidneyl stones.
Answer:
Causes:l Thel leadingl causel ofl kidneyl stonesl isl al lackl ofl waterl inl thel body.l Anl
excessivelyl acidicl environmentl inl urinel canl leadl tol thel formationl ofl kidneyl stones.l
Symptoms:l Severel painl inl thel groin,l bloodl inl urine,l WBCl inl urine,l burningl inl urine
Treatments:l Al ureteroscopel canl gol upl intol thel ureterl andl removel thel stonel
mechanically.l Al nephroscopel canl gol upl intol thel kidneyl andl crushl thel stonel intol
smallerl piecesl thatl canl passl outl ofl thel body.l Lastly,l shockl wavel lithotripsyl isl al
treatmentl thatl involvesl submergingl thel patientl inl al bathl ofl waterl thatl hasl strongl shockl
