Diversity & Inclusion
@ Work
Hays-Thomas, R. (2016). Managing workplace diversity and inclusion: A
psychological perspective. Taylor & Francis
+ notes from lectures and the not mandatory literature
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations __________________________ 3
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference _______________________ 11
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and Fairness _____________ 19
Guest speaker: Bernice Feller-Thijm _____________________________________ 28
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In- Equity __________ 31
European Union's legal framework for equal treatment and the prohibition of
discrimination _____________________________________________________________ 41
Chapter 8: Making the Most of Diversity in Teams __________________________ 43
Chapter 9: Sex, Gender, and Work _______________________________________ 55
Chapter 10: Race, Ethnicity, and Work ___________________________________ 64
Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and Work _________________________________ 78
Chapter 12: Religion, Age, Ability, Appearance, Weight, Social Class, and Work __ 84
Chapter 13: Building Diversity Competence for Individuals ___________________ 94
Chapter 14: Building Organizational Diversity Competence through Organizational
Development _____________________________________________________________ 103
2
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in
Organizations
History of Diversity and Inclusion
The term diversity gained popularity in the 1980s; it referred to changes in
demographic characteristics of the labour force and work organizations, particularly race,
ethnicity, and sex (= demographic differences in the workforce, such as race, ethnicity, and
gender)
Over time, its definition broadened to include factors like education, geographic
background, and values.
As diversity efforts progressed, the concept of inclusion became essential. Early
diversity work emphasized representational diversity—hiring individuals from
underrepresented groups. However, research showed that hiring alone was insufficient, as
many women and ethnic minorities struggled to advance, felt like outsiders within (Collins,
1986), faced special stresses, or left their jobs prematurely. True inclusion ensures that
diverse employees are accepted, productive, and rewarded equally within the organization.
Definitions of inclusion vary, with some emphasizing employee perceptions and
others focusing on organizational processes and climate. Shore et al. (2011) define inclusion
as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he/ she is an esteemed member of the
work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies belongingness and uniqueness.”
This highlights the need for both acceptance and individual recognition. The discussion of
diversity and inclusion continues to evolve, shaping workplace strategies and policies.
Why a Narrow Definition of Diversity?
A narrow definition of diversity focuses on sex, race, and disability, which have
historically been associated with power differences, discrimination, and hostility. These
characteristics are often considered protected categories under the law, ensuring legal
protection against discrimination. Supporters of the narrow definition argue that expanding
the concept may dilute attention on these significant issues.
This approach primarily deals with surface diversity—visible attributes that often lead
to stereotyping and misunderstanding. Such characteristics are linked to ascribed status,
meaning they are assigned at birth and largely beyond personal control (e.g., race, sex, and
disability). Since these factors are widely studied in social sciences, they remain central to
diversity discussions.
Most of these differences relate to ascribed status: social position that is accorded to
people because of who they are rather than what they have achieved. Most of these attributes
are not under the person’s control and cannot be changed at will through energy, effort, or
talent.
Problems with a narrow definition:
- a narrow focus on diversity presents challenges: if everything in the diversity program
seems to deal with women or ethnic minorities, it may be difficult to garner support from
those in the more numerous or favoured majority, typically white males, who see nothing
positive, and even potential losses, for themselves; diversity activities may become
marginalized and seen only as relevant to others
- a narrow definition of diversity may lead to confusion of this term with others such as
Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA), which have legal
3
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
definitions and may be disliked or even reviled by those with negative experiences they
attribute to these programs
Equal Employment Opportunity emerged Affirmative Action, in contrast, is a
from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and proactive effort to attract qualified
ensures equal consideration for all applicants from underrepresented groups. It
applicants without discrimination based on is required for federal agencies and
race, sex, religion, colour, or ethnicity. It is contractors but does not mandate hiring
a passive commitment to fairness unqualified candidates.
- EEO is a passive statement saying only - AA is an active statement that the
that an employer will not discriminate employer will act affirmatively or
unfairly. proactively to attract qualified applicants
from groups that in the past were
victims of unfair exclusion and
discriminatory treatment
Why a Broad Definition?
A broad definition of diversity includes not only race, sex, and disability but also
differences in functional area (department or specialization), organizational level, geographic
origin or accent, personality, and work style; any of these can be the basis for serious
stereotyping and prejudice.
The broad definition helps people see diversity initiatives as beneficial for everyone.
Programs initially designed for specific groups—such as mentoring, childcare, or elder
care—often prove helpful to others, including men. This approach also minimizes confusion
between Diversity & Inclusion (D&I) and legally defined concepts like Equal Employment
Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA). It also acknowledges that differences are
socially constructed—what is considered “different” depends on social interactions and
context. For example, at work we may not even notice whether someone has brown eyes, but
we usually are aware of a person’s brown skin.
Problems with the widder definition:
- treating all differences as equally important dilutes focus on historical discrimination;
discrimination against ethnic minorities and women has caused far greater harm than
differences in personality or work style
- Elsie Cross, a diversity consultant, cautioned against applying diversity efforts to all kinds
of differences at the expense of addressing illegal and harmful discrimination => an
effective diversity manager must assess the organizational context and balance both broad
and narrow perspectives, applying each where appropriate
Diversity, Diversity Management, and Inclusion: Working Definitions
From a psychological perspective on diversity management, the focus is on the
behaviours and feelings of different people and how organizations and managers can most
effectively deal with these issues => diversity is “differences among people that are likely to
affect their acceptance, performance, satisfaction, or progress in an organization” (Hays-
Thomas, 2004) (thus, diversity includes whatever differences are most significant in a
particular organizational setting)
4
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Diversity management refers to planned and systematic programs and procedures
designed to
(a) improve interaction among diverse people
(b) make this diversity a source of innovation and increased effectiveness rather than
miscommunication, conflict, or obstacles to employees’ performance, satisfaction, and
advancement
Inclusion refers to one result of good diversity management practices: the acceptance,
satisfaction, and progress of different groups of people. It applies especially to individuals
and groups differing in sex, ethnicity, culture, ability status, sexual orientation, or other ways
that are important in a particular organization.
Why is Diversity Important?
Diversity is important because it influences every aspect of human resource (HR)
management and overall organizational effectiveness. It affects processes such as job
analysis, hiring, training, performance evaluation, compensation, leadership, and
organizational development.
job analysis Diversity considerations are essential in job analysis to ensure that KSAs
and design reflect a representative sample of employees rather than being shaped by
a homogeneous workforce. Additionally, organizations must carefully
distinguish between job-relevant KSAs and characteristics that reflect the
demographics of current employees rather than actual job needs.
Expanding the pool of perspectives can lead to better performance and a
more inclusive hiring process.
selection Organizations may actively seek to diversify their workforce to better
reflect their customer base. In some cases, diversity efforts are driven by
Affirmative Action (AA) plans or legal requirements following
discrimination investigations or lawsuits.
Traditional hiring assessments may unintentionally disadvantage
candidates from minority groups or those with disabilities. This can lead
to biased hiring decisions, exclusion of qualified minority candidates, and
potential legal challenges. To ensure fairness, organizations may need
alternative assessment methods that accurately measure KSAs for
candidates with different backgrounds.
Providing testing instructions in multiple languages or modifying
assessments to be more inclusive ensures that all candidates have a fair
opportunity to demonstrate their qualifications.
training and Training is a structured process that focuses on job skills and work
socialization policies, while socialization is the informal process of learning
workplace culture, behaviours, and expectations. Socialization can occur
through mentoring programs, orientation sessions, or written materials,
but in some cases, organizations assume that new employees will adapt
on their own.
Training programs may need to be adjusted to accommodate varied
educational backgrounds, language capabilities, and learning styles. As
organizations become more diverse, they may also need to develop new
interpersonal training programs to help employees navigate cultural
differences, such as culture assimilator training.
5
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
For socialization (=onboarding), employees from backgrounds similar to
the existing workforce often intuitively understand workplace norms.
However, individuals who are pioneers in their roles—such as the first
person of colour, first woman, or first person from a different religious or
ethnic background—may struggle to integrate due to a lack of informal
knowledge. Mentoring programs can bridge this gap by pairing new
employees with experienced mentors who provide guidance on career
growth and workplace expectations.
performance Performance appraisal refers to the evaluation of employees’ work
appraisal/ performance and typically involves formal annual reviews alongside
evaluation informal feedback. Evaluations should be free from bias related to sex,
race, ethnicity, age, religion, or other non-job-related characteristics.
Many grievances and lawsuits have arisen from unfair evaluations where
men and women or majority and minority employees were assessed
differently, sometimes unintentionally.
Cultural differences can also impact performance expectations. For
example, some cultural groups may have different perceptions of time
management, deadlines, or workplace behaviour. Supervisors should
ensure that expectations are clearly communicated rather than assuming
that all employees understand implicit workplace norms.
Performance evaluation systems should explicitly recognize diversity and
inclusion (D&I) efforts. In companies that prioritize equity and inclusion,
managers may even be assessed on their ability to support diverse
employees and foster an inclusive workplace. By integrating D&I into
performance expectations, organizations reinforce their commitment to
fairness and equal opportunity for all employees.
job evaluation Job evaluation is the process of assigning value to jobs based on factors
and such as skill requirements, effort, working conditions, and levels of
compensation responsibility. This evaluation establishes a hierarchical structure within
an organization, where the most complex and demanding roles are
positioned at the top with the highest compensation. However, this
hierarchy is often distorted due to occupational segregation, where
certain jobs or departments are predominantly occupied by one gender or
racial group. This segregation stems from historical discrimination,
societal expectations, and individual career choices influenced by
socialization patterns. As a result, biases in job evaluation may arise,
where roles traditionally held by women or minorities—such as teaching,
caregiving, and administrative support—are often undervalued and
underpaid compared to jobs historically dominated by White men.
One major outcome of biased job evaluation systems is the wage gap,
which refers to the persistent pay disparity between men and women or
between White employees and racial minorities.
group When teams consist of individuals with diverse backgrounds,
processes and experiences, personalities, and abilities, the outcomes can be both
leadership positive and challenging. On one hand, diversity fosters creativity and
innovation, as different perspectives lead to more effective problem-
solving and better decision-making. On the other hand, diversity can also
6
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
create communication barriers and conflicts, especially when team
members have different goals, expectations, or work styles. The key to
success lies in how these differences are managed. If diversity is ignored
or dismissed, it can lead to workplace tension, whereas proactively
addressing and leveraging differences can enhance teamwork and
productivity.
Leadership is goal-oriented influence within teams and organizations, and
different leadership styles can be effective depending on task complexity,
organizational culture, and team expectations. However, access to
leadership positions is often unequal, with disparities based on gender,
race, ethnicity, and age. Additionally, leadership effectiveness can be
perceived differently depending on whether the leader belongs to a
majority or underrepresented group. Leaders from marginalized groups
may face additional scrutiny or bias despite demonstrating strong
leadership skills.
Ultimately, organizations must recognize and address both the benefits
and challenges of diversity within teams. Leaders should be trained to
manage heterogeneity effectively.
organizational Organizational change and development (OD) refers to processes and
change and strategies used by leaders, consultants, and employees to improve
development workplace relationships and overall organizational effectiveness. These
techniques can be applied to address workplace conflicts, inefficiencies,
or structural challenges, or they can be used to help successful
organizations enhance their performance further.
Diversity plays a significant role in organizational change (e.g: corporate
mergers). Another key application of OD is in diversity management.
Organizations may seek to increase workforce diversity in response to
changing customer demographics, evolving applicant pools, or new
stakeholder expectations. As workplaces become more diverse in
ethnicity, gender, age, and abilities, organizations must adapt their
structures, policies, and behaviours to harness diversity as a competitive
advantage.
Effective diversity management is a fundamental aspect of organizational
development, ensuring that inclusive practices strengthen the workforce
and drive long-term success.
7
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Onboarding/ socialisation tactics (van Maanen & Schein, 1979)
Socialization tactics (van Maanen & Schein, 1979)
Onboarding as group and/or away from current staff
Collective* or individual content
Formal* or informal
Onboarding according to fixed procedure and/or timeline
Sequential* or random context
Fixed* or variable
Onboarding with role-models and/or newcomers can retain own identity
Serial* or disjunctive social
Investiture* or divestiture
*these tactics are the most effective for onboarding
Content Dimension
Collective vs. Individual
Collective: New employees are onboarded as a group.
Individual: Each new employee is onboarded separately.
Formal vs. Informal
Formal: Onboarding follows a structured, organized plan.
Informal: Onboarding is unstructured and less organized.
Context Dimension
Sequential vs. Random
Sequential: The onboarding process follows a clear, step-by-step sequence.
Random: Steps may be unclear or occur in no fixed order.
Fixed vs. Variable
Fixed: There’s a strict timeline for completing onboarding.
Variable: The timing is flexible and can vary between individuals.
Social Dimension
Serial vs. Disjunctive
Serial: Newcomers are mentored or guided by experienced role models.
Disjunctive: No guidance is provided by current staff.
Investiture vs. Divestiture
Investiture: The organization affirms and values the newcomer's identity and qualities.
Divestiture: The organization expects newcomers to shed previous identities and
adopt the organization’s norms.
Why is Diversity Important Now?
After the Civil Rights legislation of the 1960s, organizations began focusing more on
hiring women and ethnic minorities, leading to increased demographic diversity, particularly
through affirmative action (AA) programs. Fears of discrimination lawsuits further motivated
companies to adopt diversity initiatives. However, in the 1980s, legal and judicial setbacks to
integration led many in the corporate world to proactively create diversity programs,
recognizing that legal mechanisms were insufficient in addressing workplace discrimination.
8
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
The rise of workplace diversity efforts was also spurred by both actual and perceived
demographic shifts. Census data from 2000 and 2010 confirmed that the workforce was
becoming more ethnically diverse, with increases in Hispanic, Asian, and multiracial
populations, while the White workforce declined proportionally. Additionally, the workforce
was aging, with many experienced workers nearing retirement.
Work organization itself has evolved, with greater reliance on teams—often diverse
and cross-functional—as well as contingent and part-time workers1. These trends create new
challenges for inclusion, trust-building, and adapting to constant workplace change. Finally,
job instability has increased compared to previous generations, requiring workers and
organizations to remain flexible and inclusive amid frequent transitions and varying levels of
job security and benefits among employees.
The Business Case for Diversity
As the field matured, practitioners and scholars saw that if diversity initiatives were to
succeed in work organizations, a convincing business rationale would be needed to show that
this work should receive resources and administrative support.
The core of the "business case" argues that effective diversity management can boost
organizational profitability—a perspective known as the "bottom line" or "value-in-diversity"
argument. Cox (1997) outlined several factors supporting this case, including:
✓ improved marketing through better understanding of diverse clients
✓ enhanced ability to attract top talent
✓ increased creativity and problem-solving
✓ greater organizational flexibility in adapting to change2
✓ additionally, well-managed diversity can reduce costs by lowering absenteeism, turnover,
miscommunication, harassment, and the risk of discrimination lawsuits
HR professionals often report positive impacts of diversity initiatives on recruitment,
productivity, and workplace culture. Stock prices have been seen to rise following
recognition for affirmative action, and fall after discrimination lawsuits. Studies reveal
nuanced findings: while diversity alone may not guarantee financial success, organizations
that embrace diversity strategically—especially during periods of growth—often see better
outcomes. For instance, companies with more women in leadership have shown higher
financial performance, and Herring’s (2009) research linked both racial and gender diversity
to improved sales and market share.
However, results are mixed and context-dependent. Diversity can have positive
effects when coupled with inclusive practices and leadership support, but can also present
challenges if unmanaged. Some scholars, like Litvin (2006), argue that diversity shouldn't
have to be justified solely through financial metrics, emphasizing instead the moral,
developmental, and human benefits of inclusion. Echoing this, Kochan et al. (2003) advocate
for viewing diversity as a permanent reality that requires a long-term, systemic, and cultural
commitment, where the focus is on learning and collaboration rather than just representation.
1
Contingent workers are those who do not have a contract for ongoing employment, either implicit or
explicit, and often are short term. This term includes independent contractors, on-call workers, employees of
temporary help agencies, or employees of contract firms that place them with another company (US
Government Accountability Office, 2015).
2
An organization that is more diverse internally should be able to adapt more quickly to changed
external conditions such as competition, changes in the economy or the labour market, or new laws or
regulations.
9
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
The Belgian researcher Frederik Anseel made a case against business cases for
diversity:
10
@ Work
Hays-Thomas, R. (2016). Managing workplace diversity and inclusion: A
psychological perspective. Taylor & Francis
+ notes from lectures and the not mandatory literature
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in Organizations __________________________ 3
Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Difference _______________________ 11
Chapter 3: Privilege, Social Construction, Attribution, and Fairness _____________ 19
Guest speaker: Bernice Feller-Thijm _____________________________________ 28
Chapter 4: Organizational Structure and the Problem of Pay In- Equity __________ 31
European Union's legal framework for equal treatment and the prohibition of
discrimination _____________________________________________________________ 41
Chapter 8: Making the Most of Diversity in Teams __________________________ 43
Chapter 9: Sex, Gender, and Work _______________________________________ 55
Chapter 10: Race, Ethnicity, and Work ___________________________________ 64
Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and Work _________________________________ 78
Chapter 12: Religion, Age, Ability, Appearance, Weight, Social Class, and Work __ 84
Chapter 13: Building Diversity Competence for Individuals ___________________ 94
Chapter 14: Building Organizational Diversity Competence through Organizational
Development _____________________________________________________________ 103
2
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Chapter 1: Diversity and Inclusion in
Organizations
History of Diversity and Inclusion
The term diversity gained popularity in the 1980s; it referred to changes in
demographic characteristics of the labour force and work organizations, particularly race,
ethnicity, and sex (= demographic differences in the workforce, such as race, ethnicity, and
gender)
Over time, its definition broadened to include factors like education, geographic
background, and values.
As diversity efforts progressed, the concept of inclusion became essential. Early
diversity work emphasized representational diversity—hiring individuals from
underrepresented groups. However, research showed that hiring alone was insufficient, as
many women and ethnic minorities struggled to advance, felt like outsiders within (Collins,
1986), faced special stresses, or left their jobs prematurely. True inclusion ensures that
diverse employees are accepted, productive, and rewarded equally within the organization.
Definitions of inclusion vary, with some emphasizing employee perceptions and
others focusing on organizational processes and climate. Shore et al. (2011) define inclusion
as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he/ she is an esteemed member of the
work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies belongingness and uniqueness.”
This highlights the need for both acceptance and individual recognition. The discussion of
diversity and inclusion continues to evolve, shaping workplace strategies and policies.
Why a Narrow Definition of Diversity?
A narrow definition of diversity focuses on sex, race, and disability, which have
historically been associated with power differences, discrimination, and hostility. These
characteristics are often considered protected categories under the law, ensuring legal
protection against discrimination. Supporters of the narrow definition argue that expanding
the concept may dilute attention on these significant issues.
This approach primarily deals with surface diversity—visible attributes that often lead
to stereotyping and misunderstanding. Such characteristics are linked to ascribed status,
meaning they are assigned at birth and largely beyond personal control (e.g., race, sex, and
disability). Since these factors are widely studied in social sciences, they remain central to
diversity discussions.
Most of these differences relate to ascribed status: social position that is accorded to
people because of who they are rather than what they have achieved. Most of these attributes
are not under the person’s control and cannot be changed at will through energy, effort, or
talent.
Problems with a narrow definition:
- a narrow focus on diversity presents challenges: if everything in the diversity program
seems to deal with women or ethnic minorities, it may be difficult to garner support from
those in the more numerous or favoured majority, typically white males, who see nothing
positive, and even potential losses, for themselves; diversity activities may become
marginalized and seen only as relevant to others
- a narrow definition of diversity may lead to confusion of this term with others such as
Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA), which have legal
3
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
definitions and may be disliked or even reviled by those with negative experiences they
attribute to these programs
Equal Employment Opportunity emerged Affirmative Action, in contrast, is a
from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and proactive effort to attract qualified
ensures equal consideration for all applicants from underrepresented groups. It
applicants without discrimination based on is required for federal agencies and
race, sex, religion, colour, or ethnicity. It is contractors but does not mandate hiring
a passive commitment to fairness unqualified candidates.
- EEO is a passive statement saying only - AA is an active statement that the
that an employer will not discriminate employer will act affirmatively or
unfairly. proactively to attract qualified applicants
from groups that in the past were
victims of unfair exclusion and
discriminatory treatment
Why a Broad Definition?
A broad definition of diversity includes not only race, sex, and disability but also
differences in functional area (department or specialization), organizational level, geographic
origin or accent, personality, and work style; any of these can be the basis for serious
stereotyping and prejudice.
The broad definition helps people see diversity initiatives as beneficial for everyone.
Programs initially designed for specific groups—such as mentoring, childcare, or elder
care—often prove helpful to others, including men. This approach also minimizes confusion
between Diversity & Inclusion (D&I) and legally defined concepts like Equal Employment
Opportunity (EEO) or Affirmative Action (AA). It also acknowledges that differences are
socially constructed—what is considered “different” depends on social interactions and
context. For example, at work we may not even notice whether someone has brown eyes, but
we usually are aware of a person’s brown skin.
Problems with the widder definition:
- treating all differences as equally important dilutes focus on historical discrimination;
discrimination against ethnic minorities and women has caused far greater harm than
differences in personality or work style
- Elsie Cross, a diversity consultant, cautioned against applying diversity efforts to all kinds
of differences at the expense of addressing illegal and harmful discrimination => an
effective diversity manager must assess the organizational context and balance both broad
and narrow perspectives, applying each where appropriate
Diversity, Diversity Management, and Inclusion: Working Definitions
From a psychological perspective on diversity management, the focus is on the
behaviours and feelings of different people and how organizations and managers can most
effectively deal with these issues => diversity is “differences among people that are likely to
affect their acceptance, performance, satisfaction, or progress in an organization” (Hays-
Thomas, 2004) (thus, diversity includes whatever differences are most significant in a
particular organizational setting)
4
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Diversity management refers to planned and systematic programs and procedures
designed to
(a) improve interaction among diverse people
(b) make this diversity a source of innovation and increased effectiveness rather than
miscommunication, conflict, or obstacles to employees’ performance, satisfaction, and
advancement
Inclusion refers to one result of good diversity management practices: the acceptance,
satisfaction, and progress of different groups of people. It applies especially to individuals
and groups differing in sex, ethnicity, culture, ability status, sexual orientation, or other ways
that are important in a particular organization.
Why is Diversity Important?
Diversity is important because it influences every aspect of human resource (HR)
management and overall organizational effectiveness. It affects processes such as job
analysis, hiring, training, performance evaluation, compensation, leadership, and
organizational development.
job analysis Diversity considerations are essential in job analysis to ensure that KSAs
and design reflect a representative sample of employees rather than being shaped by
a homogeneous workforce. Additionally, organizations must carefully
distinguish between job-relevant KSAs and characteristics that reflect the
demographics of current employees rather than actual job needs.
Expanding the pool of perspectives can lead to better performance and a
more inclusive hiring process.
selection Organizations may actively seek to diversify their workforce to better
reflect their customer base. In some cases, diversity efforts are driven by
Affirmative Action (AA) plans or legal requirements following
discrimination investigations or lawsuits.
Traditional hiring assessments may unintentionally disadvantage
candidates from minority groups or those with disabilities. This can lead
to biased hiring decisions, exclusion of qualified minority candidates, and
potential legal challenges. To ensure fairness, organizations may need
alternative assessment methods that accurately measure KSAs for
candidates with different backgrounds.
Providing testing instructions in multiple languages or modifying
assessments to be more inclusive ensures that all candidates have a fair
opportunity to demonstrate their qualifications.
training and Training is a structured process that focuses on job skills and work
socialization policies, while socialization is the informal process of learning
workplace culture, behaviours, and expectations. Socialization can occur
through mentoring programs, orientation sessions, or written materials,
but in some cases, organizations assume that new employees will adapt
on their own.
Training programs may need to be adjusted to accommodate varied
educational backgrounds, language capabilities, and learning styles. As
organizations become more diverse, they may also need to develop new
interpersonal training programs to help employees navigate cultural
differences, such as culture assimilator training.
5
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
For socialization (=onboarding), employees from backgrounds similar to
the existing workforce often intuitively understand workplace norms.
However, individuals who are pioneers in their roles—such as the first
person of colour, first woman, or first person from a different religious or
ethnic background—may struggle to integrate due to a lack of informal
knowledge. Mentoring programs can bridge this gap by pairing new
employees with experienced mentors who provide guidance on career
growth and workplace expectations.
performance Performance appraisal refers to the evaluation of employees’ work
appraisal/ performance and typically involves formal annual reviews alongside
evaluation informal feedback. Evaluations should be free from bias related to sex,
race, ethnicity, age, religion, or other non-job-related characteristics.
Many grievances and lawsuits have arisen from unfair evaluations where
men and women or majority and minority employees were assessed
differently, sometimes unintentionally.
Cultural differences can also impact performance expectations. For
example, some cultural groups may have different perceptions of time
management, deadlines, or workplace behaviour. Supervisors should
ensure that expectations are clearly communicated rather than assuming
that all employees understand implicit workplace norms.
Performance evaluation systems should explicitly recognize diversity and
inclusion (D&I) efforts. In companies that prioritize equity and inclusion,
managers may even be assessed on their ability to support diverse
employees and foster an inclusive workplace. By integrating D&I into
performance expectations, organizations reinforce their commitment to
fairness and equal opportunity for all employees.
job evaluation Job evaluation is the process of assigning value to jobs based on factors
and such as skill requirements, effort, working conditions, and levels of
compensation responsibility. This evaluation establishes a hierarchical structure within
an organization, where the most complex and demanding roles are
positioned at the top with the highest compensation. However, this
hierarchy is often distorted due to occupational segregation, where
certain jobs or departments are predominantly occupied by one gender or
racial group. This segregation stems from historical discrimination,
societal expectations, and individual career choices influenced by
socialization patterns. As a result, biases in job evaluation may arise,
where roles traditionally held by women or minorities—such as teaching,
caregiving, and administrative support—are often undervalued and
underpaid compared to jobs historically dominated by White men.
One major outcome of biased job evaluation systems is the wage gap,
which refers to the persistent pay disparity between men and women or
between White employees and racial minorities.
group When teams consist of individuals with diverse backgrounds,
processes and experiences, personalities, and abilities, the outcomes can be both
leadership positive and challenging. On one hand, diversity fosters creativity and
innovation, as different perspectives lead to more effective problem-
solving and better decision-making. On the other hand, diversity can also
6
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
create communication barriers and conflicts, especially when team
members have different goals, expectations, or work styles. The key to
success lies in how these differences are managed. If diversity is ignored
or dismissed, it can lead to workplace tension, whereas proactively
addressing and leveraging differences can enhance teamwork and
productivity.
Leadership is goal-oriented influence within teams and organizations, and
different leadership styles can be effective depending on task complexity,
organizational culture, and team expectations. However, access to
leadership positions is often unequal, with disparities based on gender,
race, ethnicity, and age. Additionally, leadership effectiveness can be
perceived differently depending on whether the leader belongs to a
majority or underrepresented group. Leaders from marginalized groups
may face additional scrutiny or bias despite demonstrating strong
leadership skills.
Ultimately, organizations must recognize and address both the benefits
and challenges of diversity within teams. Leaders should be trained to
manage heterogeneity effectively.
organizational Organizational change and development (OD) refers to processes and
change and strategies used by leaders, consultants, and employees to improve
development workplace relationships and overall organizational effectiveness. These
techniques can be applied to address workplace conflicts, inefficiencies,
or structural challenges, or they can be used to help successful
organizations enhance their performance further.
Diversity plays a significant role in organizational change (e.g: corporate
mergers). Another key application of OD is in diversity management.
Organizations may seek to increase workforce diversity in response to
changing customer demographics, evolving applicant pools, or new
stakeholder expectations. As workplaces become more diverse in
ethnicity, gender, age, and abilities, organizations must adapt their
structures, policies, and behaviours to harness diversity as a competitive
advantage.
Effective diversity management is a fundamental aspect of organizational
development, ensuring that inclusive practices strengthen the workforce
and drive long-term success.
7
, Laura C/ Tilburg University
Onboarding/ socialisation tactics (van Maanen & Schein, 1979)
Socialization tactics (van Maanen & Schein, 1979)
Onboarding as group and/or away from current staff
Collective* or individual content
Formal* or informal
Onboarding according to fixed procedure and/or timeline
Sequential* or random context
Fixed* or variable
Onboarding with role-models and/or newcomers can retain own identity
Serial* or disjunctive social
Investiture* or divestiture
*these tactics are the most effective for onboarding
Content Dimension
Collective vs. Individual
Collective: New employees are onboarded as a group.
Individual: Each new employee is onboarded separately.
Formal vs. Informal
Formal: Onboarding follows a structured, organized plan.
Informal: Onboarding is unstructured and less organized.
Context Dimension
Sequential vs. Random
Sequential: The onboarding process follows a clear, step-by-step sequence.
Random: Steps may be unclear or occur in no fixed order.
Fixed vs. Variable
Fixed: There’s a strict timeline for completing onboarding.
Variable: The timing is flexible and can vary between individuals.
Social Dimension
Serial vs. Disjunctive
Serial: Newcomers are mentored or guided by experienced role models.
Disjunctive: No guidance is provided by current staff.
Investiture vs. Divestiture
Investiture: The organization affirms and values the newcomer's identity and qualities.
Divestiture: The organization expects newcomers to shed previous identities and
adopt the organization’s norms.
Why is Diversity Important Now?
After the Civil Rights legislation of the 1960s, organizations began focusing more on
hiring women and ethnic minorities, leading to increased demographic diversity, particularly
through affirmative action (AA) programs. Fears of discrimination lawsuits further motivated
companies to adopt diversity initiatives. However, in the 1980s, legal and judicial setbacks to
integration led many in the corporate world to proactively create diversity programs,
recognizing that legal mechanisms were insufficient in addressing workplace discrimination.
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, Laura C/ Tilburg University
The rise of workplace diversity efforts was also spurred by both actual and perceived
demographic shifts. Census data from 2000 and 2010 confirmed that the workforce was
becoming more ethnically diverse, with increases in Hispanic, Asian, and multiracial
populations, while the White workforce declined proportionally. Additionally, the workforce
was aging, with many experienced workers nearing retirement.
Work organization itself has evolved, with greater reliance on teams—often diverse
and cross-functional—as well as contingent and part-time workers1. These trends create new
challenges for inclusion, trust-building, and adapting to constant workplace change. Finally,
job instability has increased compared to previous generations, requiring workers and
organizations to remain flexible and inclusive amid frequent transitions and varying levels of
job security and benefits among employees.
The Business Case for Diversity
As the field matured, practitioners and scholars saw that if diversity initiatives were to
succeed in work organizations, a convincing business rationale would be needed to show that
this work should receive resources and administrative support.
The core of the "business case" argues that effective diversity management can boost
organizational profitability—a perspective known as the "bottom line" or "value-in-diversity"
argument. Cox (1997) outlined several factors supporting this case, including:
✓ improved marketing through better understanding of diverse clients
✓ enhanced ability to attract top talent
✓ increased creativity and problem-solving
✓ greater organizational flexibility in adapting to change2
✓ additionally, well-managed diversity can reduce costs by lowering absenteeism, turnover,
miscommunication, harassment, and the risk of discrimination lawsuits
HR professionals often report positive impacts of diversity initiatives on recruitment,
productivity, and workplace culture. Stock prices have been seen to rise following
recognition for affirmative action, and fall after discrimination lawsuits. Studies reveal
nuanced findings: while diversity alone may not guarantee financial success, organizations
that embrace diversity strategically—especially during periods of growth—often see better
outcomes. For instance, companies with more women in leadership have shown higher
financial performance, and Herring’s (2009) research linked both racial and gender diversity
to improved sales and market share.
However, results are mixed and context-dependent. Diversity can have positive
effects when coupled with inclusive practices and leadership support, but can also present
challenges if unmanaged. Some scholars, like Litvin (2006), argue that diversity shouldn't
have to be justified solely through financial metrics, emphasizing instead the moral,
developmental, and human benefits of inclusion. Echoing this, Kochan et al. (2003) advocate
for viewing diversity as a permanent reality that requires a long-term, systemic, and cultural
commitment, where the focus is on learning and collaboration rather than just representation.
1
Contingent workers are those who do not have a contract for ongoing employment, either implicit or
explicit, and often are short term. This term includes independent contractors, on-call workers, employees of
temporary help agencies, or employees of contract firms that place them with another company (US
Government Accountability Office, 2015).
2
An organization that is more diverse internally should be able to adapt more quickly to changed
external conditions such as competition, changes in the economy or the labour market, or new laws or
regulations.
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, Laura C/ Tilburg University
The Belgian researcher Frederik Anseel made a case against business cases for
diversity:
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