Japanese Foreign Policy and International
Response, 1931-38
From the Manchurian Crisis to the Second Sino-Japanese War
China: Warlord Era, Rise of GMD
● 1916-1928, China in civil wars; ruled by regional warlords
● United Front: Communists (CCP) joined by Guomindang, Chinese Nationalist
Party GMD)
○ GMD founder Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) died, replaced by Jiang Jieshi
(Chiang Kai-Shek)
● 1926-28, GMD and CCP launched Northern Expedition: consolidate central
government and oust warlords
○ But by 1927, Jiang launched White Terror against CCP because he’s anti-
communist
● Manchurian warlord - Chang Zuolin (the Old Marshal), backed by Kwantung
Army (Japanese army based in Manchuria)
● But, Japan doubted his loyalty as Jiang approached, assassinated him in June
1928
○ Plan: use ensuing chaos to take over Manchuria
● But his son Zhang Xueliang (Young Marshal) cooperated with Jiang, so plot
failed
○ Japanese PM resigned; couldn’t get Army to punish plotters
Mukden Incident and Manchurian Crisis
● Kwantung army saw threats: Jiang, Soviet Five Year Plan, international
pressure
● Manchuria represented a “lifeline” for Japan
○ Economic: raw materials - coal, iron, timber
○ Economic: potential markets, which Japan needs because it’s affected by
Great Depress
○ Manchuria is a buffer zone against China and Russia to protect Korea and
Japan
○ Living Space - Manchuria is 4 times larger than Japan
● 18 September 1931: Mukden Incident, bomb exploded on S. Manchurian
Railway
○ Evidence that perpetrators were Japanese
, ○ Emperor had ordered PM to restrain Japanese army, but letter was
intentionally delayed
● Shows how Kwantung army is inciting chaos independently
● “Young Marshal” Zhang Xueliang ordered no response, but Kwantung Army
excuse
○ Japan seized all cities along the railway
○ No authority from Emperor, Diet, or military in Tokyo
● Kwantung army continued to expand despite government’s decisions to
confine to railway
Manchukuo
● 1 March 1932: Manchukuo declared independent from China (actually a puppet
state)
● Rules by Puyi, last of Manchu emperors (deposed in 1912), named the Kangde
Emperor
○ Puppet state: he only took orders from Japanese
● Imperial Army of Manchuria created, along with postal system, schools;
consolidated their power by developing the region
● Conquest of Manchuria mostly complete by 1932, finished in 1934
○ GMD ordered not to resist, as its army wasn't strong enough to resist
Japan
International Response: China
● Jiang sought to avoid conflict because he’s been fighting the CCP in S. China
● Shanghai Incident: January 1932, anti-Japanese riots broke out
○ Japan responded w/ naval and aerial bombing; thousand died, more
displaced
○ Ceasefire in March, Shanghai= neutral zone
● Jiang’s policy was non-resistance, no compromise and non-direct negotiation
○ Unlikely to achieve positive results, according to historian Immanuel
Hsu
● China signed Tanggu Truce with Japan in May 1933, after clear LoN couldn’t
help
○ Some historians say this = first example of Axis appeasement, but
popular resentment grew
○ 1936 Jiang formed another United Front with GMD and CCP to fight
Japan
Response, 1931-38
From the Manchurian Crisis to the Second Sino-Japanese War
China: Warlord Era, Rise of GMD
● 1916-1928, China in civil wars; ruled by regional warlords
● United Front: Communists (CCP) joined by Guomindang, Chinese Nationalist
Party GMD)
○ GMD founder Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) died, replaced by Jiang Jieshi
(Chiang Kai-Shek)
● 1926-28, GMD and CCP launched Northern Expedition: consolidate central
government and oust warlords
○ But by 1927, Jiang launched White Terror against CCP because he’s anti-
communist
● Manchurian warlord - Chang Zuolin (the Old Marshal), backed by Kwantung
Army (Japanese army based in Manchuria)
● But, Japan doubted his loyalty as Jiang approached, assassinated him in June
1928
○ Plan: use ensuing chaos to take over Manchuria
● But his son Zhang Xueliang (Young Marshal) cooperated with Jiang, so plot
failed
○ Japanese PM resigned; couldn’t get Army to punish plotters
Mukden Incident and Manchurian Crisis
● Kwantung army saw threats: Jiang, Soviet Five Year Plan, international
pressure
● Manchuria represented a “lifeline” for Japan
○ Economic: raw materials - coal, iron, timber
○ Economic: potential markets, which Japan needs because it’s affected by
Great Depress
○ Manchuria is a buffer zone against China and Russia to protect Korea and
Japan
○ Living Space - Manchuria is 4 times larger than Japan
● 18 September 1931: Mukden Incident, bomb exploded on S. Manchurian
Railway
○ Evidence that perpetrators were Japanese
, ○ Emperor had ordered PM to restrain Japanese army, but letter was
intentionally delayed
● Shows how Kwantung army is inciting chaos independently
● “Young Marshal” Zhang Xueliang ordered no response, but Kwantung Army
excuse
○ Japan seized all cities along the railway
○ No authority from Emperor, Diet, or military in Tokyo
● Kwantung army continued to expand despite government’s decisions to
confine to railway
Manchukuo
● 1 March 1932: Manchukuo declared independent from China (actually a puppet
state)
● Rules by Puyi, last of Manchu emperors (deposed in 1912), named the Kangde
Emperor
○ Puppet state: he only took orders from Japanese
● Imperial Army of Manchuria created, along with postal system, schools;
consolidated their power by developing the region
● Conquest of Manchuria mostly complete by 1932, finished in 1934
○ GMD ordered not to resist, as its army wasn't strong enough to resist
Japan
International Response: China
● Jiang sought to avoid conflict because he’s been fighting the CCP in S. China
● Shanghai Incident: January 1932, anti-Japanese riots broke out
○ Japan responded w/ naval and aerial bombing; thousand died, more
displaced
○ Ceasefire in March, Shanghai= neutral zone
● Jiang’s policy was non-resistance, no compromise and non-direct negotiation
○ Unlikely to achieve positive results, according to historian Immanuel
Hsu
● China signed Tanggu Truce with Japan in May 1933, after clear LoN couldn’t
help
○ Some historians say this = first example of Axis appeasement, but
popular resentment grew
○ 1936 Jiang formed another United Front with GMD and CCP to fight
Japan
