SOCIAL INFLUENCE, PUBLIC COMMUNICATION AND ADVERTIZING (SIPA)
Summary of articles
Scholer, A. A., Cornwell, J. F. M., & Higgins, E. T. (2019). Regulatory focus theory and research:
Catching up and looking forward after 20 years. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of
motivation. New York: Oxford University Press. (pp. 47 – 52)
Regulatory focus theory differentiates between promotion and prevention focus → focuses/foci
shape how individuals approach goals, interpret experiences and regulate emotions
1. Promotion focus → aspirations, growth and achievements
a. Success brings joy, and failure brings disappointment
2. Prevention focus → security, responsibilities, and avoiding negative outcomes
a. Success alleviates anxiety, and failure leads to guilt
People experience regulatory fit when their strategies match their focus
• Promotion-focused people excel with gain-oriented strategies (e.g. strive for rewards)
• Prevention-focused people excel with avoidance-oriented strategies (e.g. stay safe)
• Fit enhances motivation, engagement and satisfaction
Emotion-focus connection → promotion focus associated with amotions such as hope and
excitement, while prevention focus is linked to caution and relief → positive and negative
emotions can act as feedback for goals process
Emotions as drivers of action → positive emotions can reinforce continued effort and negative
emotions can serve as a signal to adjust strategies or increase focus, especially in prevention-
focused individuals
Self-regulation and goal pursuit
• Setting and achieving goals → goals aligned with an individual’s regulatory focus tend to
yield better results
o Promotion-focused individuals thrive on ambitious, aspirational goals
o Prevention-focused individuals prefer clear, structured goals that minimize risk
• Overcoming challenges
o Promotion-focused individuals reframe setbacks as opportunities to improve
o Prevention-focused individuals may become more risk-averse after setbacks,
but are often more thorough and cautious
• Feedback and adjustment → continuous feedback enhances progress toward goals →
regulatory fit influences how feedback is interpreted:
o Promotion-focused individuals value affirmations and milestones
o Prevention-focused individuals respond well to reminders of potential pitfalls
Social and cultural influences
1. Cultural variations → western cultures promote individuality and self-expression,
fostering promotion focus, whereas eastern cultures value collectivism and duty,
fostering prevention focus
2. Interpersonal relationships → relationships flourish when partners share a similar focus,
as it aligns communication styles and expectations
a. Conflicts may arise when regulatory foci diverge, as each partner may prioritize
different needs
1
,Applications in real life
• Workplace motivation → tailored motivational strategies can enhance employee
engagement and performance
o Leaders should align incentives and communication styles with employees’
regulatory focus
• Marketing strategies
o Promotion-focused advertising appeals to growth and innovation
▪ E.g. ‘’achieve the extraordinary’’
o Prevention-focused advertising appeals to safety and reliability
▪ E.g. ‘’never worry again’’
• Education and learning → teachers can encourage learning by aligning assignments and
rewards with students’ motivational styles
Conclusion → article emphasized the importance of understanding regulatory focus and
emotional processes to tailor strategies in personal, social, and professional contexts → aligning
goals and strategies with an individual’s regulatory focus creates better engagement, stronger
emotional connections and more effective outcomes
2
, Berger, J. (2020). Chapter 4 “Uncertainty”. From: The Catalyst. How to Change Anyone's Mind.
New-York: Simon & Schuster.
Story of Nick Swinmurn, founder of Zappos, illustrates how uncertainty can block innovation →
early on, consumers were skeptical about buying shoes online because they couldn’t try them
on or assess quality beforehand → this hesitation is attributed to the ‘uncertainty tax’ → mental
cost people assign to unfamiliar or risky options → overcoming this tax is critical for driving
change and adoption
Uncertainty (tax) → reduces the perceived value of new ideas, products or services, making
people favor familiar and predictable options even when better alternatives exist
• Risk aversion → people tend to avoid risky choices, even if the risk is minimal
o E.g. experiments show that people prefer a guaranteed $30 over an 80% chance
of $45, despite the latter being the better option on average
• This tax devalues uncertain options so much, that they’re often worth less than their
worst-case outcomes
o E.g. a lottery ticket offering a 50% chance of $50 of $100 is valued by people at
less than $25, far below its expected value
• Paralysis through uncertainty → uncertainty often freezes decision-making → faced with
ambiguous outcomes, people defer choices or stick to the status quo
o E.g. in a study where participants could buy a vacation package after passing,
failing or awaiting the results of an exam, those with uncertain outcomes were
most likely to delay purchasing
• Emotional weight of uncertainty → uncertainty feels worse than certain negative
outcomes → this emotional weight discourages action, reducing the likelihood of
adopting new ideas, products or behaviors
o E.g. knowing you’re late is stressful but preferable to constantly wondering if
you’ll arrive on time
Overcoming uncertainty: strategies to reduce the barrier
1. Trialability: testing before committing → introduced by Everett Rogers in his diffusion of
innovations, trialability refers to how easily something can be tested of experienced on a
limited basis → products, services, or ideas that are easy to try diffuse faster → examples:
a. Dropbox’s freemium model → users could try the service free of charge, reducing
hesitation → this freemium approach fostered widespread adoption as users
upgraded after recognizing its value
b. Zappos’ free shipping and returns → removed barriers by allowing customers to
try multiple pairs of shoes without financial risk → transformed habits and
normalized online shopping
2. Freemium models → by offering free versions of products or services, companies allow
users to try them without commitment, easing uncertainty → examples:
a. Spotify, LinkedIn, Candy Crush → free tiers encourage exploration, while
premium features drive conversions
b. Dropbox → free storage gets users hooked, and as they story more files,
switching becomes harder due to ‘switching costs’
c. Psychological impact → freemium models encourage users to convince
themselves of a product’s value, through repeated use, increasing the likelihood
of upgrading
3
Summary of articles
Scholer, A. A., Cornwell, J. F. M., & Higgins, E. T. (2019). Regulatory focus theory and research:
Catching up and looking forward after 20 years. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of
motivation. New York: Oxford University Press. (pp. 47 – 52)
Regulatory focus theory differentiates between promotion and prevention focus → focuses/foci
shape how individuals approach goals, interpret experiences and regulate emotions
1. Promotion focus → aspirations, growth and achievements
a. Success brings joy, and failure brings disappointment
2. Prevention focus → security, responsibilities, and avoiding negative outcomes
a. Success alleviates anxiety, and failure leads to guilt
People experience regulatory fit when their strategies match their focus
• Promotion-focused people excel with gain-oriented strategies (e.g. strive for rewards)
• Prevention-focused people excel with avoidance-oriented strategies (e.g. stay safe)
• Fit enhances motivation, engagement and satisfaction
Emotion-focus connection → promotion focus associated with amotions such as hope and
excitement, while prevention focus is linked to caution and relief → positive and negative
emotions can act as feedback for goals process
Emotions as drivers of action → positive emotions can reinforce continued effort and negative
emotions can serve as a signal to adjust strategies or increase focus, especially in prevention-
focused individuals
Self-regulation and goal pursuit
• Setting and achieving goals → goals aligned with an individual’s regulatory focus tend to
yield better results
o Promotion-focused individuals thrive on ambitious, aspirational goals
o Prevention-focused individuals prefer clear, structured goals that minimize risk
• Overcoming challenges
o Promotion-focused individuals reframe setbacks as opportunities to improve
o Prevention-focused individuals may become more risk-averse after setbacks,
but are often more thorough and cautious
• Feedback and adjustment → continuous feedback enhances progress toward goals →
regulatory fit influences how feedback is interpreted:
o Promotion-focused individuals value affirmations and milestones
o Prevention-focused individuals respond well to reminders of potential pitfalls
Social and cultural influences
1. Cultural variations → western cultures promote individuality and self-expression,
fostering promotion focus, whereas eastern cultures value collectivism and duty,
fostering prevention focus
2. Interpersonal relationships → relationships flourish when partners share a similar focus,
as it aligns communication styles and expectations
a. Conflicts may arise when regulatory foci diverge, as each partner may prioritize
different needs
1
,Applications in real life
• Workplace motivation → tailored motivational strategies can enhance employee
engagement and performance
o Leaders should align incentives and communication styles with employees’
regulatory focus
• Marketing strategies
o Promotion-focused advertising appeals to growth and innovation
▪ E.g. ‘’achieve the extraordinary’’
o Prevention-focused advertising appeals to safety and reliability
▪ E.g. ‘’never worry again’’
• Education and learning → teachers can encourage learning by aligning assignments and
rewards with students’ motivational styles
Conclusion → article emphasized the importance of understanding regulatory focus and
emotional processes to tailor strategies in personal, social, and professional contexts → aligning
goals and strategies with an individual’s regulatory focus creates better engagement, stronger
emotional connections and more effective outcomes
2
, Berger, J. (2020). Chapter 4 “Uncertainty”. From: The Catalyst. How to Change Anyone's Mind.
New-York: Simon & Schuster.
Story of Nick Swinmurn, founder of Zappos, illustrates how uncertainty can block innovation →
early on, consumers were skeptical about buying shoes online because they couldn’t try them
on or assess quality beforehand → this hesitation is attributed to the ‘uncertainty tax’ → mental
cost people assign to unfamiliar or risky options → overcoming this tax is critical for driving
change and adoption
Uncertainty (tax) → reduces the perceived value of new ideas, products or services, making
people favor familiar and predictable options even when better alternatives exist
• Risk aversion → people tend to avoid risky choices, even if the risk is minimal
o E.g. experiments show that people prefer a guaranteed $30 over an 80% chance
of $45, despite the latter being the better option on average
• This tax devalues uncertain options so much, that they’re often worth less than their
worst-case outcomes
o E.g. a lottery ticket offering a 50% chance of $50 of $100 is valued by people at
less than $25, far below its expected value
• Paralysis through uncertainty → uncertainty often freezes decision-making → faced with
ambiguous outcomes, people defer choices or stick to the status quo
o E.g. in a study where participants could buy a vacation package after passing,
failing or awaiting the results of an exam, those with uncertain outcomes were
most likely to delay purchasing
• Emotional weight of uncertainty → uncertainty feels worse than certain negative
outcomes → this emotional weight discourages action, reducing the likelihood of
adopting new ideas, products or behaviors
o E.g. knowing you’re late is stressful but preferable to constantly wondering if
you’ll arrive on time
Overcoming uncertainty: strategies to reduce the barrier
1. Trialability: testing before committing → introduced by Everett Rogers in his diffusion of
innovations, trialability refers to how easily something can be tested of experienced on a
limited basis → products, services, or ideas that are easy to try diffuse faster → examples:
a. Dropbox’s freemium model → users could try the service free of charge, reducing
hesitation → this freemium approach fostered widespread adoption as users
upgraded after recognizing its value
b. Zappos’ free shipping and returns → removed barriers by allowing customers to
try multiple pairs of shoes without financial risk → transformed habits and
normalized online shopping
2. Freemium models → by offering free versions of products or services, companies allow
users to try them without commitment, easing uncertainty → examples:
a. Spotify, LinkedIn, Candy Crush → free tiers encourage exploration, while
premium features drive conversions
b. Dropbox → free storage gets users hooked, and as they story more files,
switching becomes harder due to ‘switching costs’
c. Psychological impact → freemium models encourage users to convince
themselves of a product’s value, through repeated use, increasing the likelihood
of upgrading
3
