Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
Explanation
This document is my distillation of the textbook Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Tenth
Edition (2015), by Frederic H. Martini et al. (a.k.a. “the 10th Martini”), and associated slides
prepared by Lee Ann Frederick. While this textbook is a valuable resource, I believe that it is
too dense to be read successfully by many undergraduate students. I offer Crowther’s Tenth
Martini so that students who have purchased the Martini textbook may benefit more fully from
it. No copyright infringement is intended and, to the best of my knowledge, none has been
committed. Any errors in Crowther’s Tenth Martini are my fault.
-- Gregory J. Crowther, Ph.D. (Lecturer, University of Washington Bothell)
Table of Contents 15: Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System
1: An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 16: The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions
2: The Chemical Level of Organization 17: The Special Senses
3: The Cellular Level of Organization 18: The Endocrine System
4: The Tissue Level of Organization 19: Blood
5: The Integumentary System 20: The Heart
6: Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure 21: Blood Vessels and Circulation
7: The Axial Skeleton 22: The Lymphatic System and Immunity
8: The Appendicular Skeleton 23: The Respiratory System
9: Joints 24: The Digestive System
10: Muscle Tissue 25: Metabolism and Energetics
11: The Muscular System 26: The Urinary System
12: Neural Tissue 27: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
13: The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 28: The Reproductive System
14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves 29: Development and Inheritance
1
,Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Let’s get started!
1.0: Outline
1.1: What are anatomy and physiology?
• Anatomy and physiology cover structure and function, respectively. The two go
hand in hand.
1.2: What levels of organization are included in anatomy and physiology?
• One can study A&P at the level of molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems (of which there are 11).
1.3: What are homeostasis and negative feedback?
• Homeostasis is a near-constant state.
• Negative feedback maintains homeostasis by negating (counteracting) changes
away from setpoints. Negative feedback systems also include receptors/sensors,
integrators, and effectors.
1.4: How do we describe anatomy clearly?
• The anatomical position is a standard reference position.
• There about 40 common anatomical surface landmarks, seven standard pairs of
anatomical directions, and three standard types of anatomical sections.
1.5: What are body cavities?
• The trunk is subdivided into membrane-lined cavities.
• The ventral interior is divided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities,
separated by the diaphragm.
1.6: Recommended review questions
1.7: Appendix: word roots, prefixes, and suffixes
1.1: What are anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy describes the structures of the body: what they are made of, where they are located, and
which structures are associated with which. Physiology is the study of the functions of these
structures.
Anatomy and physiology – often abbreviated A&P – can be approached separately but usually
are presented together because structure and function are so closely interconnected. It is often
said that “form follows function”; in other words, the specific structure of a given molecule, cell,
organ, or organ system must suit its specific function(s).
As an example, consider the structural differences between skeletal muscle cells and cardiac
(heart) muscle cells. The job of both types of cells is to contract, so they both contain lots of the
proteins that make the cells shorter (actin and myosin and other associated proteins – to be
covered in Chapters 4 and 10). However, cardiac cells must do this day and night without a rest,
so their structure must be a bit different from that of skeletal muscle cells. In particular, a large
2
,Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
fraction of cardiac cells’ volume (25-30%) is taken up by mitochondria, which produce ATP in a
sustained aerobic manner that helps the cells contract over and over and over. In contrast,
skeletal muscle cells are only used intermittently and only devote a small fraction of their
volume (1-5%) to mitochondria. Therefore we can say that structural differences between
cardiac and skeletal muscle cells – the fraction of cellular space taken up by mitochondria –
reflect their functional differences – continuous versus intermittent contraction.
1.2: What levels of organization are included in anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy and physiology span all of the levels shown in the top half of 10th Martini Figure 1-1
(Levels of Organization). Starting at the atomic level, we note that atoms are combined to make
molecules such as the proteins actin, troponin, and tropomyosin – components of muscle cells
that are pictured under the label “Chemical Level” in 10th Martini Figure 1-1. Proteins and other
molecules such as lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids are contained in and organized by
cells (e.g., heart muscle cells), the fundamental unit of life. A tissue (e.g., cardiac muscle tissue)
can be defined as cells working together; an organ (e.g., the heart) is two or more tissues working
together; and an organ system (e.g., the cardiovascular system) is two or more organs working
together.
Subsequent chapters will cover basic information about atoms and molecules (Chapter 2), cells
(Chapter 3), and tissues (Chapter 4).
The body may be divided into 11 organ systems (also pictured in 10th Martini Figure 1-1):
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive. In many two-quarter anatomy & physiology courses, the
first quarter (e.g., Biology 241) focuses on the first four of these: integumentary (Chapter 5),
skeletal (Chapters 6-9), muscular (Chapters 10-11), and nervous (Chapters 12-17). They are
summarized in CTM Table 1.1. Most of the remaining organ systems are covered in the second
quarter (e.g., Biology 242).
CTM Table 1.1: Overview of organ systems covered in the first “half” of 10th Martini
Organ system Major organs Major functions
Integumentary • skin • protection
• hair • temperature control (cooling, insulation)
• sweat glands • sensing the environment
• nails
Skeletal • bones • shape and support
• cartilage • makes blood cells
• ligaments • stores calcium and other minerals
• bone marrow
Muscular • skeletal muscles • movement
• tendons • heat production
• structure and support
Nervous • brain • senses environment
• spinal cord • responds to stimuli
• peripheral nerves • communicates with other organs
• sense organs
3
, Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
1.3: What are homeostasis and negative feedback?
This first chapter does not include much physiology. However, two concepts are so central to
physiology that they are included here: homeostasis and negative feedback.
The word homeostasis can be understood in terms of its roots. “Homeo” means “similar or
unchanging” and “stasis” means “state,” so homeostasis indicates a near-constant state.
For organisms such as humans to survive, we must maintain the homeostasis of our internal
environment despite frequent changes in the external environment. 10th Martini Table 1-1 lists
many of the variables that we try to keep constant: body temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels, body fluid volume, blood pressure, and so on. Failure to keep these variables within
healthy ranges leads to disease and sometimes death.
The general mechanism for maintaining the homeostasis of a given variable is called negative
feedback. This is a term that physiologists have borrowed from engineers. In general, feedback
is a response to a stimulus or input. Negative feedback is called negative because the response
counteracts (negates) the stimulus. For example, in the control of room temperature (10th
Martini Figure 1-2), a rising temperature will cause an air conditioner to lower the temperature,
thus counteracting the initial stimulus.
If we look at negative feedback systems in a bit more detail, we can say that they include four
key components (with control-of-room-temperature examples in parentheses):
• Receptors (or Sensors): report the current level of a variable (e.g., thermometer)
• Setpoint: the default or “ideal” level of the variable (e.g., 70 °F – set by resident of house)
• Integrator: compares the actual level to the setpoint (e.g., is actual temperature higher or lower
than 70 °F?)
• Effectors: move the actual level back toward the setpoint (e.g., air conditioner or heater)
Now let’s find these four components in the biological regulation of temperature (10th Martini
Figure 1-3):
• Receptors (or Sensors): temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus
• Setpoint: the preferred core temperature is 98 °F, which equals 37 °C
• Integrator: the thermoregulatory center in the brain (the hypothalamus, specifically) compares
the actual temperature to the setpoint
• Effectors: sweating by glands in the skin and dilation of blood vessels in the skin increase heat
loss from the skin and reduce body temperature toward the setpoint
We will return frequently to the concept of negative feedback throughout this course.
1.4: How do we describe anatomy clearly?
The language of anatomy is intimidating to many students, and for good reason: there are a lot of
terms to be understood and memorized. While we cannot avoid this jargon, we will try to cover
it in an organized and sensible manner.
4
Explanation
This document is my distillation of the textbook Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Tenth
Edition (2015), by Frederic H. Martini et al. (a.k.a. “the 10th Martini”), and associated slides
prepared by Lee Ann Frederick. While this textbook is a valuable resource, I believe that it is
too dense to be read successfully by many undergraduate students. I offer Crowther’s Tenth
Martini so that students who have purchased the Martini textbook may benefit more fully from
it. No copyright infringement is intended and, to the best of my knowledge, none has been
committed. Any errors in Crowther’s Tenth Martini are my fault.
-- Gregory J. Crowther, Ph.D. (Lecturer, University of Washington Bothell)
Table of Contents 15: Sensory Pathways and the Somatic Nervous System
1: An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 16: The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions
2: The Chemical Level of Organization 17: The Special Senses
3: The Cellular Level of Organization 18: The Endocrine System
4: The Tissue Level of Organization 19: Blood
5: The Integumentary System 20: The Heart
6: Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure 21: Blood Vessels and Circulation
7: The Axial Skeleton 22: The Lymphatic System and Immunity
8: The Appendicular Skeleton 23: The Respiratory System
9: Joints 24: The Digestive System
10: Muscle Tissue 25: Metabolism and Energetics
11: The Muscular System 26: The Urinary System
12: Neural Tissue 27: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
13: The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes 28: The Reproductive System
14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves 29: Development and Inheritance
1
,Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Let’s get started!
1.0: Outline
1.1: What are anatomy and physiology?
• Anatomy and physiology cover structure and function, respectively. The two go
hand in hand.
1.2: What levels of organization are included in anatomy and physiology?
• One can study A&P at the level of molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems (of which there are 11).
1.3: What are homeostasis and negative feedback?
• Homeostasis is a near-constant state.
• Negative feedback maintains homeostasis by negating (counteracting) changes
away from setpoints. Negative feedback systems also include receptors/sensors,
integrators, and effectors.
1.4: How do we describe anatomy clearly?
• The anatomical position is a standard reference position.
• There about 40 common anatomical surface landmarks, seven standard pairs of
anatomical directions, and three standard types of anatomical sections.
1.5: What are body cavities?
• The trunk is subdivided into membrane-lined cavities.
• The ventral interior is divided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities,
separated by the diaphragm.
1.6: Recommended review questions
1.7: Appendix: word roots, prefixes, and suffixes
1.1: What are anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy describes the structures of the body: what they are made of, where they are located, and
which structures are associated with which. Physiology is the study of the functions of these
structures.
Anatomy and physiology – often abbreviated A&P – can be approached separately but usually
are presented together because structure and function are so closely interconnected. It is often
said that “form follows function”; in other words, the specific structure of a given molecule, cell,
organ, or organ system must suit its specific function(s).
As an example, consider the structural differences between skeletal muscle cells and cardiac
(heart) muscle cells. The job of both types of cells is to contract, so they both contain lots of the
proteins that make the cells shorter (actin and myosin and other associated proteins – to be
covered in Chapters 4 and 10). However, cardiac cells must do this day and night without a rest,
so their structure must be a bit different from that of skeletal muscle cells. In particular, a large
2
,Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
fraction of cardiac cells’ volume (25-30%) is taken up by mitochondria, which produce ATP in a
sustained aerobic manner that helps the cells contract over and over and over. In contrast,
skeletal muscle cells are only used intermittently and only devote a small fraction of their
volume (1-5%) to mitochondria. Therefore we can say that structural differences between
cardiac and skeletal muscle cells – the fraction of cellular space taken up by mitochondria –
reflect their functional differences – continuous versus intermittent contraction.
1.2: What levels of organization are included in anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy and physiology span all of the levels shown in the top half of 10th Martini Figure 1-1
(Levels of Organization). Starting at the atomic level, we note that atoms are combined to make
molecules such as the proteins actin, troponin, and tropomyosin – components of muscle cells
that are pictured under the label “Chemical Level” in 10th Martini Figure 1-1. Proteins and other
molecules such as lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids are contained in and organized by
cells (e.g., heart muscle cells), the fundamental unit of life. A tissue (e.g., cardiac muscle tissue)
can be defined as cells working together; an organ (e.g., the heart) is two or more tissues working
together; and an organ system (e.g., the cardiovascular system) is two or more organs working
together.
Subsequent chapters will cover basic information about atoms and molecules (Chapter 2), cells
(Chapter 3), and tissues (Chapter 4).
The body may be divided into 11 organ systems (also pictured in 10th Martini Figure 1-1):
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive. In many two-quarter anatomy & physiology courses, the
first quarter (e.g., Biology 241) focuses on the first four of these: integumentary (Chapter 5),
skeletal (Chapters 6-9), muscular (Chapters 10-11), and nervous (Chapters 12-17). They are
summarized in CTM Table 1.1. Most of the remaining organ systems are covered in the second
quarter (e.g., Biology 242).
CTM Table 1.1: Overview of organ systems covered in the first “half” of 10th Martini
Organ system Major organs Major functions
Integumentary • skin • protection
• hair • temperature control (cooling, insulation)
• sweat glands • sensing the environment
• nails
Skeletal • bones • shape and support
• cartilage • makes blood cells
• ligaments • stores calcium and other minerals
• bone marrow
Muscular • skeletal muscles • movement
• tendons • heat production
• structure and support
Nervous • brain • senses environment
• spinal cord • responds to stimuli
• peripheral nerves • communicates with other organs
• sense organs
3
, Crowther’s Tenth Martini Fall 2015
1.3: What are homeostasis and negative feedback?
This first chapter does not include much physiology. However, two concepts are so central to
physiology that they are included here: homeostasis and negative feedback.
The word homeostasis can be understood in terms of its roots. “Homeo” means “similar or
unchanging” and “stasis” means “state,” so homeostasis indicates a near-constant state.
For organisms such as humans to survive, we must maintain the homeostasis of our internal
environment despite frequent changes in the external environment. 10th Martini Table 1-1 lists
many of the variables that we try to keep constant: body temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels, body fluid volume, blood pressure, and so on. Failure to keep these variables within
healthy ranges leads to disease and sometimes death.
The general mechanism for maintaining the homeostasis of a given variable is called negative
feedback. This is a term that physiologists have borrowed from engineers. In general, feedback
is a response to a stimulus or input. Negative feedback is called negative because the response
counteracts (negates) the stimulus. For example, in the control of room temperature (10th
Martini Figure 1-2), a rising temperature will cause an air conditioner to lower the temperature,
thus counteracting the initial stimulus.
If we look at negative feedback systems in a bit more detail, we can say that they include four
key components (with control-of-room-temperature examples in parentheses):
• Receptors (or Sensors): report the current level of a variable (e.g., thermometer)
• Setpoint: the default or “ideal” level of the variable (e.g., 70 °F – set by resident of house)
• Integrator: compares the actual level to the setpoint (e.g., is actual temperature higher or lower
than 70 °F?)
• Effectors: move the actual level back toward the setpoint (e.g., air conditioner or heater)
Now let’s find these four components in the biological regulation of temperature (10th Martini
Figure 1-3):
• Receptors (or Sensors): temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus
• Setpoint: the preferred core temperature is 98 °F, which equals 37 °C
• Integrator: the thermoregulatory center in the brain (the hypothalamus, specifically) compares
the actual temperature to the setpoint
• Effectors: sweating by glands in the skin and dilation of blood vessels in the skin increase heat
loss from the skin and reduce body temperature toward the setpoint
We will return frequently to the concept of negative feedback throughout this course.
1.4: How do we describe anatomy clearly?
The language of anatomy is intimidating to many students, and for good reason: there are a lot of
terms to be understood and memorized. While we cannot avoid this jargon, we will try to cover
it in an organized and sensible manner.
4
