CISSN EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |

Explain how carnosine is synthesized within the body - ANS-- - carnosine (B-alanyl Histidine) is made in the body from histidine and B-alanine via an energy dependent reaction cartelized by carnosine synthetase -found in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, brain, kidney, and stomach -available in meats and absorbed in intestine via peptide transporters - antioxidant activity (hydroxyl and superoxide radical) and oppose glycation - suppress lipid peroxidation and react with protein carbonyl - regulates intracellular calcium and contractility in muscle - primarily, carnosine with pH buffering capacity is widely used in the field of sports nutrition. Because the dissociation exponent (pKa) of carnosine is 6.83, it is suggested that carnosine attenuates the reduction in blood pH by a large amount of H+ originating from the dissociation of lactic acid during strenuous exercise, and suppresses a loss of force What is a waxy maize starch and what effect does it have on blood glucose? - ANS-- - a highly branched starch called amylopectin. Water soluble and absorbed by the gut more quickly than dextrose or maltodextrin, research has not substantiated this claim. -has been shown to be absorbed with less insulin, allowing ketogenic effects to remain, increase both glycogen and FFA substrate utilization Based on recent studies, which vitamin shows evidence of positively affecting muscle function? - ANS-- Vitamin D What is needed for gluconeogenesis in humans? Give examples of gluconeogenic precursors? - ANS-- Gluconeogenesis relies upon lactate, pyruvate, glycerol (a catabolic product of triglycerides) and certain amino acids (glutamine and alanine) What effect does long-term coffee consumption have on Type II Diabetes? - ANS-- Results suggest that moderate consumption of both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee may lower risk of type II diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. Coffee constituents other than caffeine may affect the development of type II diabetes What effect does supplementing with WPI have on muscle damage? - ANS-- - The major finding of this investigation was that whey protein isolate supplementation attenuated the impairment in isometric and isokinetic muscle forces during recovery from exercise-induced muscle injury - The current study demonstrates that whey protein is a partially hydrolyzed (pre-digested) form improves strength recovery rates, possibly due to an increase in the rate of repair processes and/or a reduction in the extent of damage, from intense training, in particular, eccentric exercise that is commonly used in weight training When glycogen stores are depleted, what macronutrient becomes the predominant fuel source during distance running? - ANS-- fat (oxidation) How many extra kcal are required for accumulation of 1 kg of body fat? - ANS-- approximately 7000 What are the effects of pre-exercise dehydration on thermoregulation and performance? - ANS-- decrease thermoregulation and performance What are the effects of L-alanyl-L-Glutamine supplementation on time-to-exhaustion and dehydration stress? - ANS-- Results demonstrate that AG supplementation provided a significant ergogenic benefit by increasing time to exhaustion during a mild hydration stress. This ergogenic effect was likely mediated by an enhanced fluid and electrolyte uptake What effects can a low-carbohydrate diet have on prolonged physical activity? - ANS-- Decreased glycogen synthesis, decreased performance, overreaching/overtraining Approximately how many days of heat exposure does it take to fully acclimate to exercising in the heat? - ANS-- Complete acclimation takes up to 14 days What is HICA and what are the effects of its supplementation for a period of 4 weeks? - ANS-- - Alfa-Hydroxy-isocaproic acid (HICA) is an end product of leucine metabolism in human tissues such as muscle and connective tissue. According to the clinical and experimental studies, HICA can be considered as an anti-catabolic substance. The present study investigated the effects of HICA supplementation on body composition, delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) and physical performance of athletes during a training period -already a 4-week HICA supplementation of 1.5 g a day leads to small increases in muscle mass during an intensive training period in soccer athletes What is a BOD-POD? - ANS-- a body composition recording device that uses air displacement plethysmography Compare fat and carbohydrate oxidation during exercise. Under what conditions does one fuel source predominate over the other? - ANS-- -Fat oxidation primarily occurs at low intensity long duration exercise -Carbohydrates are oxidized preferentially during higher intensity exercise What effect does betaine supplementation have on exercise performance? - ANS-- -betaine supplementation may positively affect exercise performance through favorable lactate and preferential fatty acid substrate metabolism - has been down to increase power, force, and maintenance Chronic heavy resistance training causes what adaptations in skeletal muscle? - ANS-- - increase in muscle strength and size (hypertrophy) -greater increase in Type II muscle fibers -shift in fiber type IIx to IIa Regular aerobic training causes what adaptations in skeletal muscle? - ANS-- -increased oxidative capacity, increased number and size of mitochondria, increase in enzymes of metabolic pathways involved in oxidative metabolism ---------succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase (krebs cycle tricarboxylic acid cycle) What has the greatest effect on the sedentary person's daily energy expenditure? - ANS-- resting metabolic rate What activities or sports use ATP-PCr energy system as the main energy system? - ANS-- short, high intensity sports (sprinting, power lifting, high jump, long jump) What dose of creatine, after creatine loading, will maintain elevated creatine levels for 28 days? - ANS-- A typical creatine supplementation protocol of either a loading phase of 20 to 25 g CM/d or 0.3 CM/kg/d split into 4 to 5 daily intakes of 5 grams each have been recommended to quickly saturate creatine stores in the skeletal muscle. However, a more moderate protocol where several smaller doses of creatine are ingested along the day (20 intakes of 1 g every 30 min) could be a better approach to get a maximal saturation of the intramuscular creatine store. In order to keep the maximal saturation of body creatine, the loading phase must be followed by a maintenance period of 3-5 g CM/d or 0.03 g CM/kg/d What role do vitamins play in metabolism? - ANS-- Vitamins are the building blocks/precursors to cell parts and enzymes involved in substrate metabolism Where does most of the energy for ATP phosphorylation come from? - ANS-- from the energy in the chemical bonds of the food we ingest What does pre-exercise ingestion of glycerol do? - ANS-- -hyperhydration or water retention -plasma volume INCREASES -exercising HR is reduced -improved performance time What is the glycose-alanine cycle? - ANS-- during exercise, pyruvate is formed from the breakdown of glycogen and glucose. Within the muscle BCAA's donate their amino group to pyruvate to form alanine. Alanine is transported to the liver where it is used to regenerate glucose. Glucose can then be transported back to skeletal muscle to be used for energy. Thus, BCAA's (especially leucine) help reform glucose during fasting and prolonged exercise. What is the Cori-cycle? - ANS-- The metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to pyruvate and then to glucose via gluconeogenesis, which then returns to the muscles and is converted back to lactate. Why is fat considered the ideal cellular fuel? - ANS-- it produces a far superior amount of energy when oxidized versus carbs or protein What are the essential amino acids? - ANS-- cannot be synthesized by the body and must be consumed in our diet -histidine -isoleucine -leucine -lysine -methionine -phenylalanine -threonine -trytophan -valine What are essential AAs that are also BCAAs? - ANS-- -isoleucine -leucine -valine What are conditionally essential AAs? - ANS-- AA's that are not produced by the body but are needed under stressful conditions such as exercise -arginine -cysteine -glutamine -glycine -proline -tyrosine What is the process of glycogen synthesis called? - ANS-- glycogenesis What is the main function of a carbohydrate? - ANS-- energy source Compare and contrast creatine monohydrate and creatine ethyl ester - ANS-- When compared to creatine monohydrate, creatine ethyl ester was not as effective at increasing serum and muscle creatine levels or in improving body composition, muscle mass, strength, and power. Therefore, the improvements in these variables can most likely be attributed to the training protocol itself, rather than the supplementation regimen. What is the primary fuel source for high jump? - ANS-- ATP/creatine phosphate, CHO What is the primary fuel source for a 1500 m run? - ANS-- glycogen, some fat oxidation What is the primary fuel source for a marathon? - ANS-- fat oxidation How many kcal is 1 g CHO? - ANS-- 4 kcal How many kcal is 1 g fat? - ANS-- 9 kcal How many kcal is 1 g pro? - ANS-- 4 kcal What is beta-alanine and what does it do when ingested during intense training? - ANS-- -beta-alanine is the rate limiting enzyme in the synthesis of carnosine - the amount of carnosine your body produces is directly dependent on the amount of beta-alanine available - supplementation with beta-alanine appears to have the ability to augment performance, and stimulate lean mass accrual in a short amount of time (8 weeks) in previously trained athletes. Beta-alanine may magnify the expected performance outcomes of training programs with different metabolic demands. What are the effects of creatine supplementation? - ANS-- -creatine monohydrate is the most effective ergogenic nutritional supplement currently available to athletes in terms of increasing high intensity exercise capacity and LBM during training -creatine monohydrate supplementation is not only safe, but possibly beneficial in regard to preventing injury and/or management of select medical conditions when taken within the recommended guidelines -creatine monohydrate has been reported to have a number of potentially beneficial uses in several clinical populations, and further research is warranted in these areas What is the SI unit for Energy? - ANS-- Joule 1ckal=2.4 kjoule What is sweat and where does it come from? - ANS-- the production of a fluid consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids (chiefly chlorides) that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals. Sweat contains chemicals and small amounts of urea Which activities or sports use aerobic energy as the main energy system? - ANS-- long duration, low relative intensity events (cycling, long distance running, long distance rowing) What is protein and what is it used for in the body? - ANS-- -protein is one of the three macronutrients, an amino acid, and a source of fuel -it is vital to health—it is a component of DNA, RNA, insulin, Hb, epi, and serotonin -enzymes, ,A/B balance, transportation, antibodies What are skeletal muscle satellite cells? What are their functions? - ANS-- -Satellite cells of skeletal muscle are quiescent, myogenic stem cells located outside the myofiber sarcolemma but within its basement membrane. greater in oxidative muscles -repaire myofiber damage and regenerate necrotic myofibers - fiber damage induces satellite cell activation by various mitogens -also activate during fiber-type transformation What are the effects of aerobic exercise on resting HR? - ANS-- decreases What are the effects of aerobic exercise on exercise HR? - ANS-- no change What are the effects of aerobic exercise on cardiac output? - ANS-- increases What are the effects of aerobic exercise on stroke volume? - ANS-- increases What are the effects of aerobic exercise on cardiac muscle? - ANS-- increase (size- hypertrophy?) What is glycemic load? - ANS-- glycemic load is the product of the glycemic index and the CHO content in a serving, represents both QUALITY and QUANTITY of CHO What is glycemic index? - ANS-- glycemic index is a ranking system that is used to compare the acute glycemic impact of foods. 2 hour glucose response curve is compared with 50 g of CHO of reference food Which AA is considered to be the most naturally abundant in plasma and skeletal muscle? - ANS-- glutamine What does glutamine do? - ANS-- -catabolic states of injury and illness, glutamine becomes CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL (requiring intake from food or supplements) - glutamine has been studied extensively over the past 10-15 years and has been shown to be useful in treatment of injuries, trauma, burns, and treatment-related side effects of cancer as well as in wound-healing for post-operative patients -results demonstrate that AG supplementation provided a significant ergogenic benefit by increasing time to exhaustion during a mild hydration stress. This ergogenic effect was likely mediated by an enhanced fluid and electrolyte uptake What nutrients improve or support immune system function? - ANS-- -glutamine -protein -vitamin C -zinc -echinacea What does glutamine do to enhance or support immune system function? - ANS-- -enhancement of protein and glycogen synthesis -below normal glutamine levels can contribute to immune suppression in overtrained athletes and exercise participants What does vitamin C do to improve or support immune system function? - ANS-- -antioxidant -assists in iron absorption -increased vitamin C supplementation positively associated with neutrophils and lymphocytes and immune status What does zinc do to improve or support immune system function? - ANS-- -constituent of digestive enzymes -enhances immune status What does echinacea do to improve or support immune system function? - ANS-- enhance immune status What is the thermic effect of fat? - ANS-- 2-3% (almost negligible) What is the thermic effect of protein? - ANS-- 25-35% What is the thermic effect of carbohydrates? - ANS-- 6-8% What is the relationship of anabolic steroid use to plasma lipids? - ANS-- DECREASE in HDL lipoproteins at high levels of dosage Type I muscle fibers - ANS-- slow twitch, small MN, high FR, aerobic, VERY high MCD, high oxidative capacity, low glycolytic capacity, triglyceride fuel source, consume lactic acid Type IIa fibers - ANS-- moderately fast twitch, medium MN, fairly high FR, long-term anaerobic, medium power, high MCD, high oxidative and glycolytic capacity, CP and glycogen fuel, produce lactic acid and CP Type IIx fibers - ANS-- fast twitch, large MN, intermediate FR, short-term anaerobic, high power, medium MCD, inter OC, high GC, ATP CP and little glycogen fuel consume CP What is lactic acid? - ANS-- product of fast anaerobic glycolysis What effect does lactic acid have on energy metabolism and exercise performance? - ANS-- decreases pH, energy metabolism, and exercise performance The process of splitting triglycerides is known as what? - ANS-- lipolysis What organs are/are involved in nitrogen elimination? - ANS-- liver and kidneys How is the liver involved in nitrogen elimination? - ANS-- main metabolic organ utilizing amino acids for tissue protein synthesis, heme formation, pyrimidine and purine synthesis (nucleotide precursors), ketone body and carbohydrate formation, de novo synthesis of non-essential amino acids, and finally excrete surplus nitrogen via the urea cycle gatekeeper of nitrogen balance in animals, intake and excretion How are the kidneys involved in nitrogen elimination? - ANS-- Kidney controls the process in which nitrogen is excreted as ammonium. Used to control the blood plasma pH. The blood plasma pH is determined by other actors as well, like organic acids (amino acids) and carbonic acid (CO2). Ammonium metabolism in kidney functions to depose hydrogen ions in urine. In a first reaction, kidney enzymes deaminate glutamine in two steps. The first side chain deamination is catalyzed as simple hydrolysis and is NOT REVERSIBLE During which process amino acids lose their amine or nitrogen group? - ANS-- transanimation or oxidative deamination -TA occurs when the amino group is transferred to a carbon skeleton forming a new amino acid -ODA amino group is removed, converted to ammonia and urea in the liver and subsequently removed by the kidneys and sweat glands Where do transanimation and oxidative deamination occur? - ANS-- -ODA occurs primarily on glutamic acid because glutamic acid was the end product of many transanimation reactions -glutamate dehydrogenase is allosterically controlled by ATP and ADP. ATP acts as an INHIBITOR and ADP is an ACTIVATOR What are the metabolic pathways of glucose after absorption by the small intestine? - ANS-- -there are several metabolic pathways for CHO, which include glycogenesis, glycolysis, hexosemonophosphate shunt, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and gluconeogenesis -(1) glucose is in part deposited in the liver and muscle in the form of glycogen. This glycogen serves as the body's CHO reserve; (2) part of glucose serves for the synthesis of other substances (glycoproteins, glucolipids) (3) a part of glucose enters the cells, where it is degraded in the tricarbon acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to CO and water, whereby energy is released and (4) transformed into fat and deposited in adipose tissue What are the functions of vitamin C? - ANS-- -collagen synthesis -precursor to carnitine: transport molecule for fatty acids to mitochondria -antioxidant and recycles vitamin E back to its reduced state What are the functions of vitamin E? - ANS-- -antioxidant -most abundant in body is alpha-tocopherol -scavenger of pertly radicals and inhibits lipid preoccupation in cell membranes (oxidative damage) What are the functions of Beta Carotene? - ANS-- -precursor to Vitamin A -Antioxidants that neutralize free radicals such as a singlet oxygen and peroxyl radicals What are the mechanisms for caffeine's ergogenic effect during high intensity, endurance exercise? - ANS-- -throught to increase fat oxidation and SPARE glycogen -increase concentration of hormone-like substances in the brain called B-endorphins during exercise (affect mood, reduce perception of pain) -delay fatigue by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain (adenosine is produced during exercise and inhibits the release of dopamine) What acts as an antioxidant within the respiratory chain? - ANS-- glutathione How does dietary fiber reduce the amount of food that may be absorbed? - ANS-- -insoluble fiber can bind to molecules and prevent them from being absorbed -soluble becomes "gel like" and slows rate of food passage, increasing nutrient absorption... or irritating the gut What are the effects of vegetarian type diets? What nutrients are difficult to get in a vegetarian diet? - ANS-- -lact of protein, low caloric intake, incomplete AA -hampers health and performance if not executed properly What body systems are affected by supplementation with Omega-3 rich fish oils? - ANS-- endocrine How is the endocrine system affected by supplementation with Omega-3 rich fish oils? - ANS-- The exact mechanism(s) responsible for this phenomenon are not completely understood, but there are several possible explanations. For example, EPA and DHA are very effective at suppressing lipogenic gene expression, thereby limiting the synthesis of lipids. EPA and DHA have also been found to increase the oxidation of lipids as a result of an increase in carnitine acyltransferase I (CAT I) activity, which allows greater fatty acid transport across the inner mitochondrial matrix via the CAT mechanism. Additionally, EPA can increase mitochondrial lipid oxidation indirectly by inhibiting acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which is the enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of malignly CoA, and is a potent inhibitor of CAT I. Moreover, EPA and DHA can also decrease the sensitivity of CAT I to malign CoA, which may allow a higher rate of lipid oxidation across a variety of different metabolic states. It is also possible that omega 3 fatty acids may influence total body lipid accretion by increasing thermogenesis as a result of increased activity of uncoupling proteins and peroxisomes and/or by increasing lean body mass, which would indirectly increase thermogenesis. Which common food has been shown to be an effective aid to post-exercise muscle recovery? - ANS-- low-fat milk What are the trace minerals? - ANS-- -iron -zinc -manganese -copper -fluoride -molybdenum -iodine -chromium -selenium iron - ANS-- component of proteins and enzymes, heme, cytochrome in ETC, NT synthesis and protein synthesis zinc - ANS-- cellular metabolism including catalytic, structural, and regulatory roles, enzyme, cell membrane, and protein component in copper-zinc SOD (antioxidant) manganese - ANS-- primarily works as a coenzyme that facilitates various metabolic processes in the body. The benefits of manganese in the body vary largely. It is involved in bone formation, thyroid function, formation of connective tissues, sex hormone function, calcium absorption, blood sugar regulation, immune function, and in fat and CHO metabolism copper - ANS-- is required in the formation of Hb, RBC's, bones, while it helps with the formation of elastin as well as collagen—making it necessary for wound healing fluoride - ANS-- small amounts of fluoride help reduce tooth decay. Adding fluoride to tap water helps reduce cavities in children by more than half molybdenum - ANS-- several functions of molybdenum include the prevention of dental caries, iron metabolism, uric acid excretion and maintenance of normal sexual function in males. Essential for utilizing nitrogen in the air, is a trace element responsible for several biochemical processes involving cellular structures of the body. Cellular respiration and the utilization of oxygen are dependent on molybdenum to function normally. Harnessing free radicals and preventing DNA and RNA missteps in reproduction, as well as the maintenance of cell membrane. iodine - ANS-- essential component of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. Thyroid hormones regulate many important biochemical reactions, including protein synthesis and enzymatic activity, and are critical determinants of metabolic activity. They are also required for proper skeletal and central nervous system development in fetuses and infants. chromium - ANS-- essential mineral. Cher III is in foods and involved in glucose metabolism by enhancing the function of insulin selenium - ANS-- selenium dependent enzymes are essential to normal function, glutathione preoxidase converts ROS (H2O2) into H2O What are the functions of testosterone in men and women? - ANS-- produced in the testes (men) and small amounts in the ovaries (women), is sensitive to mechanical overload and levels increase in response to resistance training protein synthesis and obviates the impact of catabolic hormones augments HG, IG-F and interacts with receptors on neurons an increase amount of neurotransmitters, increase cell body size, dendrite length, and enhance force production works in opposition to cortisol, challenging the catabolic effects of cortisol What are the fat soluble vitamins? - ANS-- E, A, D, K What are the water soluble vitamins? - ANS-- niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, biotin, B6, B12, folate, pantothenic acid What serves as the major source of CHO energy during exercise? - ANS-- glycogen Is caffeine banned by the IOC? Creatine? Whey? - ANS-- no How does an extremely high-protein/low-carbohydrate diet affect appetite? - ANS-- should suppress appetite due to increase satiety What does calcium do in the body? - ANS-- -provides crystalline structure to bones -most abundant mineral -required for normal cellular function -stimulate muscle contractions What is a byproduct of incomplete fat oxidation? - ANS-- ketones and acylcarnitines What are the functions of cholesterol? - ANS-- formation of steroid hormones, vitamin D, bile salts, integral part of cell membrane and myelin How does blood lactate change during exercise? - ANS-- depending on the exercise intensity it increases until it reaches a saturation point What is protein's role as a fuel source during exercise? - ANS-- last resort through gluconeogenesis, unless free floating BCAA's are available What are the effects of high fructose consumption? - ANS-- -increased caloric intake and body weight -can cause GI distress and diarrhea What are lipids and what are they composed of? - ANS-- -lipids: a class of compounds consisting of triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids (FAT) -glycerols: a three-carbon molecule that when released from storage can be recycled in the liver for the creating of new blood glucose through gluconeogenesis -fatty acids: chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (aliphatic chains) What are the differences in thermoregulation between men and women? - ANS-- if body composition is the same, there is no significant difference What is L-Carnitine? - ANS-- -in living cells, it is required for the transport of fatty acids from the cytosol into the mitochondria during the breakdown of lipids for the generation of metabolic energy -the carnitines exert a substantial antioxidant action, thereby providing a protective effect against lipid preoccupation of phospholipid membranes and against oxidative stress induced at the myocardial and endothelial cell level What is GPLC? What effects does it seem to have on exercise metabolism and performance? - ANS-- -glycine propionyl-l-carnitine -can enhance peak power production in resistance trained males with significantly less LAC accumulation What are retinoids? List them. - ANS-- -a class of chemical compounds that are related chemically to vitamin A -they are used in medicine, primarily due to the way they regulate epithelial cell growth. Retinoids have many important and diverse functions throughout the body including roles in vision, regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, growth of bone tissue, immune function, and activation of tumor suppressor genes -retinol, retinal, tretinoin (retinoid acid, Retin-A), isotretinoin, altitretinoin, etretinate, acitretin, tazarotene, bexarotene, adapalene Know the various reactions involving CK, C phosphorylase, ATP kinase, and ATP phosphorylase - ANS-- -CK: ADP + CP--> ATP (CK enzyme dependent) -ATP Kinase: ADP + ADP==>ATP + P (ATP Kinase dependent) -Creatine Phosphorylase: C=P--> CP (C phosphorylase dependent) -ATP phosphorylase: ADP + P--> ATP (ATP P dependent) What is the effect of CHO consumption before versus during exercise? - ANS-- improves performance What is phosphatidylserine and what are its purported ergogenic effects? - ANS-- -PS is a major phospholipid of all cell membranes -synthesized directly on the mitochondrial-associate membrane -effective liposomal delivery medium for improving the absorption of GABA -improves glucose concentration in the brain, NA, K, ATP, and ACh from the brain -blunts exercise induced Ach and cortisol in healthy adults -anti-catabolic, increased mental, increased recovery What is IGF-1 and where is it produced? - ANS-- -insulin-like growth factor 1 -secreted by liver -protein synthesis Know the correlation between high/low fat diet and testosterone - ANS-- resting testosterone concentrations are positively correlated with fatty acids, monounsaturated FA, and percent energy from fat Which vitamin is lacking in a Vegan diet? - ANS-- active form of B12 What are the contractile proteins in muscles? - ANS-- myosin, actin, troponin, tropomyosin What are the cytoskeletal proteins in muscles? - ANS-- alpha actinin, titin, nebulin What are the branched chain amino acids (BCAA's)? - ANS-- leucine, isoleucine, valine What is the most common side effect of creatine as reported in scientific literature? - ANS-- While the only clinically significant side effect reported in the research literature is that of weight gain, many anecdotal claims of side effects including dehydration, cramping, kidney and liver damage, musculoskeletal injury, gastrointestinal distress, and anterior (leg) compartment syndrome still exist in the media and popular literature What is the RDA for protein? - ANS-- sedentary: 0.8 g/kg rec exerciser: 1.0-1.4 g/kg resistance trained maintenance: 1.2-2.4 g/kg resistance trained gain mass: 1.4-1.8 g/kg endurance trained: 1.2-1.4 g/kg HITT: 1.2-1.8 g/kg weight-restricted sports: 1.4-2.0 g/kg What is the effect of frequent feeding (6 meals a day, for example) on appetite and metabolic rate? - ANS-- -increasing meal frequency does not appear to favorably change body composition in sedentary populations -if protein levels are adequate, increasing meal frequency during periods of hypo energetic dieting may preserve LBM in athletic populations -increased meal frequency appears to have a positive effect on various blood markers of health, particularly LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, and insulin -increased meal frequency does not appear to significantly enhance diet induced thermogenesis, total energy expenditure or resting metabolic rate -increasing meal frequency appears to help decrease hunger and improve appetite control Know the rate of absorption of glucose and fructose - ANS-- fructose: ranges from less than 5 g to 50 g and adapts with changes in dietary fructose intake Studies show the greatest absorption rate occurs when glucose and fructose are administered in equal quantities. When fructose is ingested as part of the disaccharide sucrose, absorption capacity is much higher because fructose exists in a 1:1 ratio with glucose. It appears that the GLUT5 transfer rate may be saturated at low levels, and absorption is increased through joint absorption with glucose One proposed mechanism for this phenomenon is a glucose-dependent cotransport of fructose. In addition, fructose transfer activity increases with dietary fructose intake. The presence of fructose in the lumen causes increased mRNA transcription of GLUT5, leading to increased transport proteins. High-fructose diets have been shown to increase abundance of transport proteins within three days of intake What solution helps to stimulate oral receptors thus increasing excitability of the corticomotor pathway? - ANS-- carbohydrate-electrolyte solution What is the female triad? - ANS-- a syndrome in which eating disorders, amenorrhea, and decreased bone mineral density are present What are the most commonly found electrolytes in the body? - ANS-- Calcium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, and phosphates What are the energy-generating capacities of the body's three main energy systems? - ANS-- -phosphagen: short, powerful small in amount -glycolytic: medium -oxidative: low intensity but virtually endless How can an athlete increase their muscle protein synthesis after they perform resistance training? - ANS-- ingestion of high GI CHO and PRO (high quality, BCAA). Then more complex CHO What is an example of a monosaccharide? - ANS-- glucose, fructose, galactose What is an example of disaccharide? - ANS-- sucrose, lactose, maltose What is an example of a polysaccharide? - ANS-- starch What is a major gluconeogenic amino acid? - ANS-- glutamine and alanine Know sports that use lactic acid energy system as a primary energy system - ANS-- medium distance sprints some football What is the function of cholesterol? - ANS-- -formation of steroid hormones, Vitamin D, bile salts, integral part of cell membranes and myelin What is the function of LDL? - ANS-- -Low density lipoproteins carry cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids throughout the body so the cells can take what they need. Cholesterol becomes incorporated in cell membranes to strengthen them or help make hormones. Triglycerides provide energy. Phospholipids serve as emulsifiers, helping fat soluble vitamins and hormones move in and out of the cells What is the function of HDL? - ANS-- high density lipoproteins, transport molecules that carry that stuff back to the liver for recycling What are VLDL/s? - ANS-- very low density lipoproteins Where does glycolysis occur? - ANS-- cytoplasm Where does the Krebs cycle occur? - ANS-- the mitochondrial matrix Why is CHO considered the preferred fuel source during intense exercise? - ANS-- quick, efficient, and is used in both anaerobic and aerobic What are the effects of caffeine on metabolism? - ANS-- -well documented effects on thermogenesis and lipolysis -affects lipolysis by inhibiting a specific enzyme necessary to allow HSL to continue on its thermogenic pathway of breaking down triglycerides -stimulate energy expenditure via a sympathetic and non sympathetic nervous system Which amino acid, together with insulin, allows protein synthesis to be coordinated with dietary intake? - ANS-- leucine Which three sources supply the body's primary need for water? - ANS-- exogenous water fruits and veggies meat What is the best post-workout meal if the goal is promoting skeletal muscle hypertrophy? - ANS-- protein and carb mix What does an ergogenic aid do? - ANS-- increases energy What is an exergonic reaction? - ANS-- a reaction that gives off energy What is an endergonic reaction? - ANS-- a reaction that requires energy What are factors that determine TDEE? - ANS-- age sex height weight physical activity What does RDI mean? - ANS-- stands for recommended daily intake the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97-98% of healthy individuals in every demographic in the US What does RDA stand for? - ANS-- represents the establishment of a nutritional norm for planning and assessing dietary intake and are the levels of intake of essential nutrients considered to be adequate to meet the known needs of practically all healthy people What does RDDI stand for? - ANS-- rich diet digestive inconsistency What does ESADDI stand for? - ANS-- Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDI), no renamed Adequate Intake (AI) for eight nutrients considered necessary for good health, even though nobody really knows exactly how much your body needs Which compound has been shown to increase fat loss independently of anything? - ANS-- ephedra What is the recommended intake of water prior to exercising in the heat? - ANS-- 32-48 oz What are the effects of Cho consumption during exercise? - ANS-- erogenic, increase performance and time to exhaustion What minerals may be depleted as a result of sweating? - ANS-- sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium What is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis? - ANS-- phosphofructokinase What are the effects of excessive sweating during exercise? - ANS-- dehydration, loss of electrolytes, hyperthermia, death What are the effects of caffeine supplementation? - ANS-- -increase in fat oxidation, sparing muscle glycogen -alters perceived effort -increases hormone-like beta endorphin (affects mood) -blocks adenosine and other NT, delaying fatigue What influences the amount of water lost during exercise? - ANS-- -types of foods ingested -exercise intensity -ambient temperature -individual sweat rates -age What is the main fuel source during light to moderate exercise? - ANS-- fat oxidation Vitamin megadose and relation to RDA - ANS-- In order for vitamin dosage to qualify as a megadose, it usually must vastly exceed the recommended RDA> Many vitamin megadoses pack in several months' worth of a certain vitamin into a single dose. This dose usually comes in the form of a single pill or injection that is prescribed by a doctor What are the effects of a decrease in intramuscular pH secondary to intense anaerobic exercise? What is the primary fate of lactate? - ANS-- -primary fate (75%) of the lactate in recovery is CO2 (the major product of oxidative metabolism) along with a variety of other end points including liver glycogen, amino acids, and other metabolic intermediates. Their findings also suggest that lactate is the primary fuel source that pays for the oxygen debt rather than being the cause of the oxygen debt. -reduces performance What are plasma homocysteine levels a marker of? - ANS-- elevated levels of homocysteine have been associated with a number of disease states: dementia, Alzheimer's, inflammation, and CV disease What are the effects of Vitamin D on CV health? - ANS-- -has been shown to affect endothelial function and decrease vascular calcification -lower SBP, increased insulin sensitivity -lower VLDL and TG's -moderate inflammatory cytokines What are anabolic hormones in regards to skeletal muscle? - ANS-- androgenic, promote growth and protein synthesis Polymerized versus concentrated glucose solution effects - ANS-- absorption rates differ, polymerized are much slower How is AA used for energy? - ANS-- splitting amino group from the carbon skeleton, with the amino group either disposed of through the urea cycle, or used for nucleotide synthesis, added to pyruvate to form Alanine. Gluconeogenesis and carbon skeleton converted to metabolites feeding catabolic energy producing pathways —Krebs and glycolysis Under what conditions are intramuscular AA degraded for energy? - ANS-- low glucose conditions What are the effects of glycogen storage on body mass? How much water is stored with glycogen? - ANS-- 3 grams water per 1 gram glycogen What is considered dehydration as it is related to % change in body weight? - ANS-- minimal= 1-2% decrease What are the metabolic effects of vanadyl sulfate? - ANS-- reported insulin sensitivity, no real anabolic effect The body is unable to oxidize the nitrogen component of which macromolecule? - ANS-- protein How does low-glycemic CHO intake affect the body during exercise? - ANS-- lower increase in instant performance, if high in fiber there may be GI distress What is oxidation? - ANS-- LOSE ELECTRONS OR HYDROGEN GAIN OXYGEN What are the contributors to the anti-oxidant capacity of blood? - ANS-- variety of enzymatic and non enzymatic What supplementation improves buffering capacity of skeletal muscle? - ANS-- carnosine and GPLC Know the ergogenic effects of creatine - ANS-- increases capacity of the phosphagen system What is HMB? - ANS-- hydroxyl-methylbutyrate What are HMB's effects on LBM - ANS-- -evidence from cachectic cancer studies suggest that HMB may inhibit the ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway responsible for the specific degradation of intracellular proteins. HMB may also directly stimulate protein synthesis, through an mTOR dependent mechanism -a number of studies have indicated that HMB supplementation may elicit several ergogenic benefits, including anti-catabolic, anabolic, and lipolytic effects, among others. Thus, it has been suggested that HMB may be partly responsible for the benefits of leucine supplementation. The intake of which vitamins, below RDA can result in physical performance impairment? - ANS-- iron What are the effects of pre-exercise bicarbonate loading? - ANS-- can help buffer lactic acid The % daily value is calculated based on what kcal diet? - ANS-- 2000 What are the effects of losing weight through diet only? - ANS-- no change in LBM, RMR may not change What is the complete cessation of the menstrual cycle called? - ANS-- amenorrhea What are the benefits for ingestion of essential acid pre exercise? - ANS-- can help prevent muscle breakdown for gluconeogenesis, and prep for post workout recovery What are the benefits for ingestion of essential acid post exercise? - ANS-- increase protein synthesis What is the general role of calcium? - ANS-- in bone matrix, cell signaling, muscle contraction What are the general roles of sodium and potassium? - ANS-- water regulation, ionic gradients, cell function Which vitamins play a role in the body's metabolism? - ANS-- -riboflavin -pantothenic acid -B6 -biotin -B12 -Vitamin C -Chromium -Magnesium What effect does elevated blood glucose have on the beta cells of the pancreas? - ANS-- Chronic exposure to hyperglycemia can lead to cellular dysfunction that may become irreversible over time, a process that is termed glucose toxicity. Our perspective about glucose toxicity as it pertains to the pancreatic beta cells is that the characteristic decreases in insulin synthesis and secretion are caused by decreased insulin gene expression. What serves as the predominant energy source for the body as exercise intensity increases and in what part of the body is it stored? - ANS-- glycogen is stored in muscles and liver What are ketones? How are they produced? - ANS-- -B-Hydroxybutyrate and Acetoacetate (fuel sources derived from fat, different option than glucose) -TAG lipolysis increased delivery of fatty acids to the liver leads to accumulation of substantial amounts of acetyl-CoA and formation of ketone bodies in the mitochondria matrix of the liver What is the RER for CHO? - ANS-- close to 1 What is the RER for fat? - ANS-- 70% cal usage at rest (0.7) What happens to RER at a rested fed state? - ANS-- increase net fat synthesis due to CHO intake—oxygen liberation from oxygen rich glucose during degradation and formation of fat (lipogenesis) production of CO2 from glycolysis What is the RER for protein? - ANS-- approx 0.8 What are the functions of glutamine? - ANS-- -most abundant conditional AA (anti-catabolic)- vita metabolic fuel -enhancement of protein and glycogen synthesis -optimized cell hydration -reduces markers of overtraining -nitrogen shuttle in muscle tissue -component of CSF -energy substrate for immune cells -5-10 g supplementation after exercise Placebo controlled versus double blind - ANS-- -placebo controlled study: a way of testing a medical therapy in which, in addition to a group of subjects that receives the treatment to be evaluated, a separate control group receives a sham "placebo" treatment which is specifically designed to have no real effect. Placebos are most commonly used in blinded trials, where subjects do not know whether they are receiving real or placebo treatment -double blind: neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group and who belongs to the experimental group. Only after all the data have been recorded (and in some cases, analyzed) do the researchers learn which individuals are which. What are the effects of supplementation with oat bran on muscle glycogen? - ANS-- -study was conducted in a Rat Based model -animals were divided into 3 groups: sedentary control group (c), an exercise group that received a control chow (ex_ and an exercise group that received a chow supplemented with oat bran (ex-o) -Time to exhaustion of the EX-O group was 20% higher when compared with the EX group -for hepatic glycogen, the EX-O group had a 67% higher concentration when compared with EX -in the soles muscle, EX-O group presented 59.4% higher glycogen concentrations when compared with EX group. -TNF-alpha was decreased, IL-6, IL-10 and corticosterone increased AFTER exercise, and eXO presented lower levels in comparison with the EX group -it was concluded that the chow rich in oat bran increased muscle and hepatic glycogen concentrations. The higher glycogen storage may improve endurance performance during training and competitions, and a lower-post exercise inflammatory response can accelerate recovery What are the functions of alpha-hydroxy-isocaproic acid? - ANS-- -end product of leucine metabolism in human tissues such as muscle and connective tissue -according to clinical and experimental studies, HICA can be considered as an anti-catabolic substance. The present study investigated the effects of HICA supplementation on body composition, DOMS, and physical performance of athletes during a training period -evidence of a direct in vitro inhibitory effect of HICA on various matrix metalloproteinase enzymes, which are responsible for degradation of various connective and protein tissues -4 week HICA supplementation of 1.5 g a day leads to small increases in muscle mass during an intensive training period in soccer athletes Dietary sources of unsaturated fatty acids? - ANS-- plant and animal Dietary sources of saturated fatty acid? - ANS-- animal Amylose - ANS-- starch from plants, linear polymer chain Amylopectin - ANS-- starch from plants, highly branched polymer chain cellulose - ANS-- non-starch polysaccharide, crystalline, strong, and resistance to hydrolysis hemicellulose - ANS-- random, amorphous with little strength, it is easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as myriad hemicellulase enzymes What prepares fatty acids to enter the krebs cycle? - ANS-- carnitine transports FA to mitochondria (B-ox, acetyl coa) What population sees the greatest effect from HBMB? - ANS-- -beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate -various studies analyzed in this manuscript support the efficacy of HMB as an effective ergogenic aid for athletes that decreases DOMS, markers of muscle damage, and body fat, while increasing various markers of performance, including LBM and strength in resistance trained athletes and OBLA and VO2 peak in endurance trained athletes, a number of studies analyzed did not support the efficacy of HMB supplementation Which skeletal muscle protein determines the contractility? - ANS-- myosin How much protein should athletes consume after an intense training regiment? - ANS-- 28 g ( according to book) Supplementation with glutamine and phosphatidylserine is used to counteract the effects of which catabolic hormone? - ANS-- cortisol Increased insulin sensitivity and improved glucose metabolism are benefits of what supplement? - ANS-- chromium What is the primary active ingredient of Bitter Orange or Citrus Auranitum? - ANS-- -acts primarily on B-3 receptors, which are responsible for lipolytic and thermogenic effects -synephrine and octopamine What is the required dose for beta-alanine for ergogenic effects? - ANS-- -naturally occurring AA, rate limiting precursor to carnosin -3.2-6.4 g/day 60 min before exercise on an empty stomach Which buffer is responsible for regulating the acid-base balance in the kidneys and intracellular fluids? - ANS-- bicarbonate What happens during the first few weeks of resistance training, when accompanied by creatine supplementation? - ANS-- increase muscle mass, sprint performance, glycogen synthesis, increased work capacity, enhanced recovery What type of fatty acid contains two or more double bonds along the carbon chain? - ANS-- polyunsaturated fats What are the effects of protein together with exercise? - ANS-- addition of protein can have added benefits by reducing muscle degradation and speeding recovery, will enhance insulin response What are the effects of quercetin on exercise? - ANS-- -on average, quercetin provides a statistically significant benefits in human endurance exercise capacity (VO2 max and endurance exercise performance) but the effect is between trivial and small -both animal and human data suggest that it stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis. The scientific literature provides compelling clinical information about this interesting flavonol What is EGCG? - ANS-- epigallocatechin gallate -ester of epigallocatechin and gallic acid, is a type of catechin -most abundant catechin in tea and is a potent antioxidant that may have therapeutic applications in the treatment of many disorders What are the cellular mechanisms governing the ergogenic benefits of beta-alanine? - ANS-- rate limiting enzyme in the synthesis of carnosine. The amount of carnosine your body produces is directly dependent on the amount of beta-alanine available. Without sufficient beta-alanine, carnosine synthesis is limited supplementation with beta-alanine appears to have the ability to augment performance and stimulate LM accrual in a short amount of time (8 weeks) in previously trained athletes may magnify the expected performance outcomes of training programs with different metabolic demands What are the cellular mechanisms governing the ergogenic benefits of creatine? - ANS-- increases creatine stores in muscles, enhances ability of the phosphagen system What are the cellular mechanisms governing the ergogenic benefits of protein? - ANS-- addition of protein can have added benefits by: reducing muscle degradation and speeding recovery, will enhance insulin response. increased muscle protein synthesis POST workout What is the main energy system used for sprints less than 10 seconds? - ANS-- phosphagen What is the primary fat of lactate upon cessation of intense exercise? - ANS-- it is oxidized, converted to its salt, lactate by buffering systems in the muscle and blood - used in gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose from lactate and non-CHO sources during extended exercise and recovery What is the difference between motor unit recruitment and rate coding? - ANS-- -recruitment: Heinemann size principle -rate coding: frequency What is the main difference between why protein concentrate, whey protein isolate, and whey protein hydrolysate? - ANS-- whey protein concentrate: contains some fat and lactose; concentrate is less processed and more whole, but has LESS protein whey protein isolate: pretty much pure protein with very little of the other dairy elements remaining. Isolate is about 90-94% protein, but it's subjected to a more rigorous refinement process. Body builders are drawn to the "purity" of whey isolate, lured by the moderately higher protein counts whey hydrolysate: predigested whey protein that is easily absorbed and virtually free of any potential allergens Thiamin - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -B1 -can exist as free or phosphorylated thiamin in the body -triphosphate is found in high concentrations in nerve and muscle cells and can activate ion channels allowing the flow of sodium and calcium -coenzyme TPP is important in mitochondrial functions -theoretically, as thiamin is required for energy production in the Krebs cycle and pentose phosphate pathway, supplementation could increase aerobic performance. However, thiamin deficiency is not common and research has not proven that excess thiamin enhances performance Riboflavin - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -Vitamin B2 -Primary component of all the coenzymes FAD and flavin mono nucleotide -flavins are critical in the metabolism of all macronutrients and plays an antioxidant role -hydrogen peroxide can be broken down by the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase in the presence of reduced glutathione -no research to indicate riboflavin as a performance enhancer -FAD dependent enzymes, xanthine oxidase, is used to produce uric acid, which at physiological concentrations, contributes to the total antioxidant capacity of the blood plasma more than any other compound including vitamins C and E Niacin - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -Vitamin B3 -In the body it is utilized in the forms of nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, NAD and NADP -NAD and NADP are coenzymes required by roughly 200 enzymes, are exceptional electron donors and are essential in the catabolism of all the macronutrients as well as the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol -although niacin supplementation has been shown to reduce FFA and increase CHO oxidation, it has not been shown to increase performance Pantothenic acid - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -Vitamin B5 -major contribution of PA to human metabolism is its role as a component of Coenzyme A -CoA is critical in generation of ATP from macros, and the synthesis of essential fats, cholesterol, and acetylcholine -PA has been shown to decrease blood lactate and O2 consumption, but not improve aerobic performance Vitamin B6 - ANS-- -found in the body as pyridoxal, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal 5'-phosphade (PLP), pyridoxine 5'-phosphate, and pyrodoxamine 5'-phosphate -PLP is the active coenzyme in the body and is vital to human metabolism -PLP is a coenzyme for glycogen phosphorylase, which releases muscle glycogen for energy production in the form of glucose -PLP is active in gluconeogenesis and in the production of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and GABA -B6 supplementation does not appear to improve aerobic performance Folate - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -folic acid -cofactor in the transfer of one-carbon units -folate accepts and donates carbon, indicating its importance in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism -NO ERGOGENIC EFFECTS of folate supplementation have been notes Biotin - ANS-- -B-complex vitamin -known as vitamin H -CANNOT be synthesized by the body and MUST be a part of our diet -is a cofactor in the carboxylases and plays a role in FA synthesis, gluconeogenesis, leucine metabolism, and metabolism of various AA, cholesterol, and odd-chain FA B12 - ANS-- -largest and most complex of the B-complex vitamins -cannot be synthesized by the body -contains cobalt and is AKA cobalamin -Methylcobalamin is required for methionine synthase activity which converts homocysteine to methionine -in well-nourished individuals, it is unlikely that B12 supplementation will enhance performance Vitamin C - ANS-- -ascorbic acid -essential vitamin and must be obtained through the diet -important in the synthesis of collagen, the production of carnation, and acts as an antioxidant by scavenging cytotoxic free radicals and recycling the vitamin E radical back to its reduced state -Vitamin C supplementation has resulted in improvements in exercise-induced damage Vitamin E - ANS-- -fat soluble -refers to a group of antioxidants including the tocopherols and tocotrienols -both have alpha, beta, gamma, and delta form -alpha tocopherol being the most active form in the body -serves as a powerful antioxidant by scavenging pertly radicals and inhibiting liked preoccupation in cell membranes (oxidative damage) -may attenuate exercise-induced damage, however no evidence exists that indicates vitamin E supplementation improves performance Vitamin A - ANS-- -fat soluble -encompasses a group of compounds including the retinoids (retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid) -retinol can be produced from beta-carotene and other carotenoids, which are antioxidants that neutralize free radicals such as singlet oxygen and peroxyl radicals -because vitamins A and C are more powerful antioxidants, supplementation is not warranted with respect to redox control Vitamin D - ANS-- -fat-soluble -Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is the primary for use in the body -cholesterol can be converted into 7-dehydrocholesterol, a precursor to D3 -UV light converts 7-dehydrocholesterol into VD3 in the skin -no performance enhancement has been observed with VD supplementation Vitamin K - ANS-- -fat soluble -K1 and K2 -coenzyme for Vitamin K dependent carboylase, which is involved in the carboxylation of glutamic acid into GCA -crucial for binding calcium to certain proteins calcium - ANS-- -mineral -most abundant mineral in the body and vital for normal cellular function -when deficient in the diet, the body will absorb calcium from bone stores to maintain proper calcium levels -it is essential in stimulating muscle contractions and should be supplemented in cases of osteoporosis chromium - ANS-- -mineral -essential mineral that comes in trivalent chromium III and hexavalent chromium VI -chromium III is the form available in food and utilized in the body -it is involved in glucose metabolism by ENHANCING INSULIN FUNCTION -supplementation has not shown increased strength and is not recommended iron - ANS-- -mineral -involved in hundreds of proteins and enzymes in the body, such as hemoglobin and myoglobin -when free iron is in its ferrous state (FE+2), it reacts with H2O2 and superoxide to form the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (OH) -iron deficiency anemia is the most common and results in reduced oxygen transport capacity -supplementation is recommended in those with iron deficiency magnesium - ANS-- -mineral -involved in more than 300 essential metabolic rxns including metabolism of CHO, fats, PRO, and nucleic acid -the antioxidant glutathione requires magnesium for its synthesis -ATP is usually found in the body as MgATP -also plays a structural role in bone cells, cell membranes, and in chromosomes -magnesium is required for the active transport of potassium and calcium across membranes which in turn can affect nerve conduction and muscle contraction zinc - ANS-- -mineral -upwards of 100 different enzymes are dependent upon zinc, and it plays an integral role in the structure of cell membranes and proteins -key component in the cytosolic antioxidant superoxide dismutase, thus, decreased zinc can lead to oxidative damage of the cell membrane -also involved in cell signaling, release hormones, aid in nerve conduction and participates in apoptosis phosphorus - ANS-- -mineral -ubiquitous throughout the body and is required for every cell to properly function -majority of phosphorous found in the body is in the form of phosphate -strutural component of bone as calcium phosphate salt known as hydroxyapatite -also a component of ATP and CP selenium - ANS-- -mineral -selenoproteins include glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase -glutathione peroxidase with glutathione can convert H2O2 into water -TR is involved in the regeneration of several antioxidant systems including ascorbate