How accurate is it to say that it was the actions of civil rights leaders that explain the increased success of
the civil rights campaign in the years 1955-68?
- Although leaders played significant role, more convincing to argue grass roots movt. played a larger
role as from 1955: change in tactics (more direct action, de jure vs de facto), larger scale of protest,
made it impossible for movt. to be ignored
- Grass roots movt brought multifaceted success (encouraged legal action, enforced rulings in practice,
changing perception of black Americans)
P1: Civil Rights Leaders
- Martin Luther King
o Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955, turning point into MLK becoming face of civil rights
o Shaped nature of movement Defined rules of non-violent protest
o Personal connection to federal gov. Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957 King convinced
Eisenhower to send federal troops to guard 9 students, despite racist governor (Orval
Faubus) shutting the school for the whole of the following year, school eventually integrated
- However, can argue his success more fairly attributed to grass roots movt. (little Rock organized by
NAACP, without huge following leadership of MLK would be pointless)
o Additionally, can be argued action from federal gov. – 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting
Rights Act more truly defines ‘success’
- Stokely Carmichael – Black Power
o Radicalized civil rights movt (said non-violence not working after 1966 shooting of James
Meredith on March vs Fear), significant in changing perceptions
o Black Panthers (1966) – 10 -point program, free breakfasts for schoolchildren
P2: Grass roots movement
- Shift from fighting de jure to de facto (key change) explains increased success
Legal action NAACP won every case it fought in the 1950s
o However, not enforced by Supreme Court (Brown v Board 1951 – 10 years after ruling only 1
in 100 black children was at an integrated school)
o 1955-1968, protestors began trying to get rulings enforced (e.g. 1961 CORE (1942) + SNCC
(1960) Freedom Rides)
- Larger scale of protest – increased direct action
o March on Washington, 1963 showed huge scale of civil rights activism
o Greensboro sit-in (1960), 1964 riots in major cities
- Encouraged voter registration (1964 SNCC Freedom Summer) led to significant black American
upper + middle classes, growing political influence (changed perception of BA)
o Can be argued they simply took King’s ideas further (i.e. took non-violent protest to places
there was likely to be violence
However, can equally be argued that leaders drew on ideas of grass roots movt.
(e.g. Birmingham 1963, King saw from CORE and SNCC protests that violence
brought progress) – more convincing as grass roots represent majority of campaign
o Can argue didn’t have direct connection with federal gov (unlike King)
However, scale of movt made it impossible for federal gov to ignore – Birmingham
1963 Kennedy sent troops
o Can be argued movt. split from 1965 (after this, no marches where civil rights movt. worked
together) therefore ‘success’ gained at end of period cannot be attributed to grass roots
However, two major legislative gains (1964 Civil Rights ACT, 1965 Voting Rights Act)
made before this, King’s success also declined at end of period (Northern Crusade,
1966 brought no permanent change)
the civil rights campaign in the years 1955-68?
- Although leaders played significant role, more convincing to argue grass roots movt. played a larger
role as from 1955: change in tactics (more direct action, de jure vs de facto), larger scale of protest,
made it impossible for movt. to be ignored
- Grass roots movt brought multifaceted success (encouraged legal action, enforced rulings in practice,
changing perception of black Americans)
P1: Civil Rights Leaders
- Martin Luther King
o Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955, turning point into MLK becoming face of civil rights
o Shaped nature of movement Defined rules of non-violent protest
o Personal connection to federal gov. Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957 King convinced
Eisenhower to send federal troops to guard 9 students, despite racist governor (Orval
Faubus) shutting the school for the whole of the following year, school eventually integrated
- However, can argue his success more fairly attributed to grass roots movt. (little Rock organized by
NAACP, without huge following leadership of MLK would be pointless)
o Additionally, can be argued action from federal gov. – 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting
Rights Act more truly defines ‘success’
- Stokely Carmichael – Black Power
o Radicalized civil rights movt (said non-violence not working after 1966 shooting of James
Meredith on March vs Fear), significant in changing perceptions
o Black Panthers (1966) – 10 -point program, free breakfasts for schoolchildren
P2: Grass roots movement
- Shift from fighting de jure to de facto (key change) explains increased success
Legal action NAACP won every case it fought in the 1950s
o However, not enforced by Supreme Court (Brown v Board 1951 – 10 years after ruling only 1
in 100 black children was at an integrated school)
o 1955-1968, protestors began trying to get rulings enforced (e.g. 1961 CORE (1942) + SNCC
(1960) Freedom Rides)
- Larger scale of protest – increased direct action
o March on Washington, 1963 showed huge scale of civil rights activism
o Greensboro sit-in (1960), 1964 riots in major cities
- Encouraged voter registration (1964 SNCC Freedom Summer) led to significant black American
upper + middle classes, growing political influence (changed perception of BA)
o Can be argued they simply took King’s ideas further (i.e. took non-violent protest to places
there was likely to be violence
However, can equally be argued that leaders drew on ideas of grass roots movt.
(e.g. Birmingham 1963, King saw from CORE and SNCC protests that violence
brought progress) – more convincing as grass roots represent majority of campaign
o Can argue didn’t have direct connection with federal gov (unlike King)
However, scale of movt made it impossible for federal gov to ignore – Birmingham
1963 Kennedy sent troops
o Can be argued movt. split from 1965 (after this, no marches where civil rights movt. worked
together) therefore ‘success’ gained at end of period cannot be attributed to grass roots
However, two major legislative gains (1964 Civil Rights ACT, 1965 Voting Rights Act)
made before this, King’s success also declined at end of period (Northern Crusade,
1966 brought no permanent change)
