ANAT0003: Lecture Notes and Textbooks

Contents
THE CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
The Neuron.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Neuronal Structure ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Neurotransmitters ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Neuroglia ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Peripheral Nervous System .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Central Nervous System ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
INTRODUCTION TO NEUROANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
The CNS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Basic Anatomy of the Spinal Cord .....................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Meninges ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Side View of Lower Thoracic and Lumbar Vertebra Showing the Cauda Equina ..................................................................................... 19
Development of the CNS .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Spinal Nerves .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Dermatomes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 23
Motor Neurons ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Injury to Peripheral Nerves .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
The PNS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Functional Divisions of the PNS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
DESCENDING TRACTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Tracts (Bundles of Axons) In The Spinal Cord............................................................................................................................................................... 25
Pyramidal Tracts: Corticospinal + Corticobulbar ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Development and Malformations of The Pyramidal Tract ................................................................................................................................. 25
Corticospinal Tract .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Inhibitory Interneurons ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Betz Cells ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Pathway: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Anatomic Evolution and Development of The CST ................................................................................................................................................ 27
Molecular Mechanisms Regulating CST Formation and Guidance .................................................................................................................. 27
Human Disorders Associated with Abnormal CST Development .................................................................................................................... 27
Upper Motor Neuron Lesion → Caused by Injury To CST??? ............................................................................................................................ 27
Future Research Opportunities ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Corticobulbar Tract ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Clinical Significance of Pyramidal Tracts ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Extrapyramidal Tracts ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Vestibulospinal Tracts ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Reticulospinal Tracts ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Rubrospinal Tract ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Tectospinal Tract................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Strokes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Reticular Formation .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30

, RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
ASCENDING SPINAL TRACTS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
General Somatosensory Systems......................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Dorsal Columns (Medial Lemniscus System) – Fasciculus Gracilis + Cuneatus ............................................................................................. 32
Spinothalamic Tract .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Neurons ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Anterior Spinothalamic Tract .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Lateral Spinothalamic Tract ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
NOCICEPTION .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Factors Influencing Nociception .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Spino-Parabrachial Pathway ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Syringomyelia .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Ventrolateral cordotomy......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Sensory modulation: gate control ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Segmental antinociception................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Supraspinal antinociception ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
THE BRAINSTEM.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Peduncles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Caudal Medulla ..........................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Mid-Medulla (Upper Closed Medulla) .............................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Rostral Medulla (Open Medulla) .......................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Dorsal Surface ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Ventral Surface ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Lower Pons .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 44
FUNCTIONAL LOCALISATION IN CEREBRAL CORTEX ................................................................................................................................................... 57
Histological Structure ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Ventricles ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Functions Of CSF .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Ventricles In The Brain ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Anatomical Position And Structure .................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Interior Structure .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
External Structure On Lateral Surface ......................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Lobes of The Cerebrum ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Frontal Lobe ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 60
Parietal Lobe ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Temporal Lobe ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Occipital Lobe ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Limbic Lobe ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Laminar Organisation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
6-Layered Cellular Laminae of the Neocortex .......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Internal Anatomy of the Cerebrum .................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Thalamus .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 63
Caudate and Lentiform Nuclei ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 63

, Internal Capsule ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Lateral and Third Ventricles ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Cell Types in the Cerebral Cortex ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Pyramidal Cells....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Spiny Stellate Cells ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Afferents of the Cerebral Cortex .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Association Fibres ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Commissural Fibres ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Projection Fibres ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Cholinergic and Aminergic fibres .................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Efferents in the Cerebral Cortex .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Major Functional Areas of The Cerebral Cortex ........................................................................................................................................................... 69
Broca’s Area ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Primary Auditory Cortex ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Fusiform Gyrus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
White Matter Of Cerebral Hemisphere -Prefrontal Cortex ...................................................................................................................................... 69
SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX .................................................................................................................................................................. 70
SOMATIC SENSORY CORTEX (AREAS 3, 1, 2) ................................................................................................................................................................ 70
Components ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Afferents .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Efferents .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
SOMATIC SENSORY ASSOCIATION AREA (AREA 5) ................................................................................................................................................... 71
SUPERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE (AREA 7) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
INFERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE (AREAS 39 AND 40) ................................................................................................................................................... 71
INTRAPARIETAL CORTEX ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
SECONDARY SOMATIC SENSORY AREA........................................................................................................................................................................... 71
VISUAL CORTEX (AREAS 17, 18, 19) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Primary Visual Cortex (area 17) ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Visual Association Cortex (area 18 and 19) .............................................................................................................................................................. 71
AUDITORY CORTEX (AREAS 41, 42, 22) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 71
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX ...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
PREMOTOR CORTEX............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 73
SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA .................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
CORTICAL EYE FIELDS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
FOREBRAIN – cerebrum ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
BLOOD SUPPLY IN THE CNS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
1. Internal Carotid Arteries .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75
2. Vertebral Arteries ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Arterial Circle Of Willis ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
3 Main Paired Constituents: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Connecting Vessels ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Dural Venous Sinuses ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76

, Falx Cerebri .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 77
BASAL GANGLIA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Horizontal Axis ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Vertical Axis .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Structural Components ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Striatum ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Caudate nucleus ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Putamen .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Nucleus accumbens and Olfactory tubule .................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Pallidum .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Substantia nigra ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Subthalamic nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Basal Ganglia Afferents ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Basal Ganglia Efferents ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Basic Circuits / Pathways ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Motor Loop............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Limbic Loop ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 86
Oculomotor Loop................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Cognitive Loop ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 87
Internal Capsule .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
Anterior Limb ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
Genu ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 88
Posterior Limb ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Claustrum ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 89
ANTERIOR PERFORATED SUBSTANCE....................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Blood Supply Of Basal Ganglia .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 89
Disorders ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Huntington’s Disease ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Parkinson’s Disease.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Hemiballismus ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 90
CRANIAL NERVES ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Origin Of Cranial Nerves .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Modalities....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Sensory Afferent Modalities ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Motor Efferent Modalities ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Olfactory (CN I)............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Sensory function .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Optic (CN II) .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 93
Oculomotor (CN III) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
ROLE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94

, ANATOMICAL COURSE/PATHWAY .............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Motor functions ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Parasympathetic functions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Trochlear Nerve (IV) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Motor function ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Clinical relevance .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Trigeminal nerve (V) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Divisions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Clinical relevance: inferior alveolar nerve block ..................................................................................................................................................100
Abducens Nerve (VI) ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................100
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................100
Motor function ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Facial Nerve (VII)......................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Anatomical Course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Parasympathetic Functions ............................................................................................................................................................................................102
Damage To Facial Nerve...................................................................................................................................................................................................103
Vestibulocochlear Nerve(VIII) ............................................................................................................................................................................................103
Vestibular Nerve ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Cochlear Nerve .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Special sensory functions ................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) ..............................................................................................................................................................................................104
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................105
Sensory functions ................................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Vagus Nerve (X).........................................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................107
Hypoglossal nerve (XII) .........................................................................................................................................................................................................108
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................109
THE CEREBELLUM ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................110
External Features .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................110
Cerebellar Zonation............................................................................................................................................................................................................110
Olivo-Cerebellar Microzones..........................................................................................................................................................................................110
Cerebellum As An Internal Model .....................................................................................................................................................................................111
Long-Term Depression Of Parallel Fibre ..................................................................................................................................................................111
The Cerebellar Module .....................................................................................................................................................................................................111
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning ................................................................................................................................................................................111
Implementation Of Marr/Albus Model For Eyeblink/Nmr Conditioning ..................................................................................................112
Lobule HV1 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................112
Reversible Inactivation Experiments .........................................................................................................................................................................112
Post-Training Inactivation – Blocking Consolidation Process ........................................................................................................................113
Memory Storage In Cerebellar Cortex .......................................................................................................................................................................113
Evidence Suggesting Motor Learning In Cerebellar Cortex..............................................................................................................................113

, Evidence Whether Motor Learning In Cerebellar Cortex Is Mechanism Of Pf-Pc Ltd ..........................................................................113
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................114
1. Archicerebellum/vestibulocerebellum ..........................................................................................................................................................116
2. Paleocerebellum/spinocerebellum ..................................................................................................................................................................116
3. Neocerebellum /pontocerebelllum ..................................................................................................................................................................117
Internal Structure .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
Layers .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
Afferent (Excitatory) Connections (Entering Cerebellum) ....................................................................................................................................119
1. MOSSY FIBRE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................119
2. CLIMBING FIBRE ......................................................................................................................................................................................................120
Efferent (Inhibitory) Connections (Leaving The Cerebellum) .............................................................................................................................121
DEEP CEREBELLAR NUCLEI ..........................................................................................................................................................................................122
Cerebellar Hemispheres In Motor Cortex ......................................................................................................................................................................124
CEREBELLAR DISORDERS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................124
MIDLINE LESIONS: TRUNCAL ATAXIA ......................................................................................................................................................................124
ANTERIOR LOVE LESIONS: GAIT ATAXIA ...............................................................................................................................................................124
THALAMUS .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................125
External Features .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................126
Internal Organisation..............................................................................................................................................................................................................126
Functional Organisation of Thalamic Nuclei and Pathways ..................................................................................................................................127
Lateral Nuclear Group .......................................................................................................................................................................................................128
Anterior Nuclear Group ....................................................................................................................................................................................................130
Medial Nuclear Group .......................................................................................................................................................................................................130
Intralaminar Nuclei ............................................................................................................................................................................................................131
Thalamic Reticular Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................131
Thalamic Peduncles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................132
LIMBIC SYSTEM ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................134
The Papez Circuit ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................137
The Hypothalamus ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................138
Major Hypothalamic Cell Groups .................................................................................................................................................................................142
Zones In The Hypothalamus...........................................................................................................................................................................................142
Magnocellular Neurosecretory Neurons ..................................................................................................................................................................143
Parvocellular Neurons ......................................................................................................................................................................................................144
The Autonomic Nervous System ............................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Motivation And Emotion .......................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Orbital Frontal Cortex → Neocortex...........................................................................................................................................................................145
Amygdala ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Disorders Of Motivation And Emotion ......................................................................................................................................................................145
Memory .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Hippocampal Formation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................146
Cingulate Gyrus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Papez Circuit ....................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cingulum .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................147

, Disorders Of Memory ........................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Limbic Lobe Disorders ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome .....................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Korsakoff’s Syndrome .......................................................................................................................................................................................................148
The Amygdala..................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Basolateral Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................................141
Central Nucleus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................141
Corticomedial Nucleus ......................................................................................................................................................................................................141
The Amygdala And Connections With The Hypothalamus And Ans ............................................................................................................141
The Autonomic Nervous System .......................................................................................................................................................................................148
Sympathetic: Anterior/Medial Hypothalamus .......................................................................................................................................................148
Parasympathetic: Posterior/Lateral Hypothalamus ...........................................................................................................................................148
Hypothalamic Control Of The Ans ...............................................................................................................................................................................148
VISUAL PATHWAY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
The Eye ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
Optical Design .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
Composition...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Light Through The Eye .....................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Retina........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Retinal Photoreceptors .....................................................................................................................................................................................................152
Evolution .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................153
Transduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................153
Colour Vision ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
The Primate Retina ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
The Visual Pathway .................................................................................................................................................................................................................155
Receptive Fields Of Primate Retinal Ganglion Cells .............................................................................................................................................155
Two Eyes One World .........................................................................................................................................................................................................155
Binocular Depth Perception ...........................................................................................................................................................................................156
Visual Pathway .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................156
Purpose Of The Lgn ............................................................................................................................................................................................................157
The Striate Cortex ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................157
Beyond V1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................159
The Dorsal And Ventral Streams ..................................................................................................................................................................................159
Damage To V1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................160
The Ancient And Modern Visual Pathways .............................................................................................................................................................160
Awareness ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Visual Form Agnosia In Man ..........................................................................................................................................................................................161
The Extent Of The Damage..............................................................................................................................................................................................161
Anatomical Course ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Extracranial ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Intracranial ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Visual Field Deficits .................................................................................................................................................................................................................162
AUDITORY PATHWAY .................................................................................................................................................................................................................163

, Functional Anatomy ................................................................................................................................................................................................................163
Central auditory anatomy .....................................................................................................................................................................................................164
External ear: ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
Middle ear ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
Inner ear: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
The Cochlea .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................166
Sensory Transduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................................166
Nonlinear Amplification ...................................................................................................................................................................................................167
Auditory Nerve ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Spiral Ganglion Cells ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Frequency Tuning ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Phase Locking .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Central Projections ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................169
Cochlear Nucleus: Parallel Pathways...............................................................................................................................................................................169
Cue Detection ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
Output Pathways .................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
Superior Olivary Nucleus ......................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Binaural Sound Localisation Cues ...............................................................................................................................................................................171
First Binarual Centre .........................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Olivocochlear Projections................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Inferior Colliculus .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Integration Centre ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN) ....................................................................................................................................................................................171
Auditory Cortex .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................172
Principles Of Cortical Organisation .............................................................................................................................................................................172
Functions Of The Auditory Cortex ....................................................................................................................................................................................173
OLFACTORY AND TASTE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Taste ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Gustatory Pathway .............................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Taste Receptor Molecules ...............................................................................................................................................................................................175
Taste Carried By Facial (VII) And Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve ...................................................................................................................176
Gustatory Pathways In The CNS ...................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Pathway ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Epithelium..........................................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Mucosa .................................................................................................................................................................................................................179
Olfactory Sensory Neurons .............................................................................................................................................................................................179
One Glomerulus: One Odorant? ....................................................................................................................................................................................180
Connections In The Olfactory Bulb..............................................................................................................................................................................180
Orthonasal Vs Retronasal Olfaction ............................................................................................................................................................................184
Piriform Cortex.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................184
Primary Olfactory Cortex .................................................................................................................................................................................................185
Orbitofrontal Cortex: The Flavour Centre? ..............................................................................................................................................................185
NEUROANATOMY OF INJURY AND REPAIR ......................................................................................................................................................................186

, Axonal Regeneration ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................186
Results Of Axotomy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................186
Wallerian Degeneration.........................................................................................................................................................................................................187
Formation Of Band Of Bunger.............................................................................................................................................................................................189
Upregulating Of Neurotrophins In The Injured Nerve.............................................................................................................................................190
The Neuronal Cell Body Response To Axotomy ....................................................................................................................................................190
Dorsal Root Regeneration.....................................................................................................................................................................................................190
Inflammation And Axonal Regeneration ........................................................................................................................................................................191
Axons Do Not Regenerate Inside CNS In Mammals ...................................................................................................................................................192
Differential Regeneration Into Nerve Grafts ................................................................................................................................................................193
Compression Or Contusion Injuries .................................................................................................................................................................................193
Inhibitory Or Repulsive Molecules ...................................................................................................................................................................................194
Potential Repair Of The Spinal Cord ................................................................................................................................................................................194
NEUROIMAGING .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
Structural Imaging ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
MRI ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
Structural MRI ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................196
Diffusion MRI (white matter tracts) ...........................................................................................................................................................................200
Functional Imaging ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................203
EEG ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................203
Functional MRI .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................207
EEG vs fMRI .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................208
Functional NIRS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................208
Summary Of Functional Methods ......................................................................................................................................................................................211
Combining Techniques...........................................................................................................................................................................................................211
SLEEP AND STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS ..........................................................................................................................................................................212
Objectives .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................212
The EEG .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................212
Synchronising Activity In A Population Of Neurons ............................................................................................................................................213
Sleep ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................213
The Neurobiology Of Sleep And Wakefulness ........................................................................................................................................................214
Stages Of Sleep......................................................................................................................................................................................................................215
Neural And Physiological Changes During Sleep ..................................................................................................................................................215
Purpose Of Sleep ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................216
Ascending Arousal System ..............................................................................................................................................................................................216
Sleep – The Daily Cycle .....................................................................................................................................................................................................221
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus........................................................................................................................................................................................221
Sleep Disorders..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Narcolepsy..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Encephalitis Lethargica ....................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Insomnia..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Brain Injury And Consciousness ........................................................................................................................................................................................222
Basic Mechanisms Of Consciousness And Coma ...................................................................................................................................................223

, LEARNING AND MEMORY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Types Of Memories ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Declarative Memory ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Non-Declarative/Procedural Memory .......................................................................................................................................................................226
Memory Storage – The Engram ..........................................................................................................................................................................................227
MEMORY AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS – Insights From Animal Models ...............................................................................................................227
Hebb’s rule .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Long-Term Potentiation ...................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Diencephalon And Memory .................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Memory Loss ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................228
Korsakoff’s Syndrome .......................................................................................................................................................................................................228
Alzheimer’s Disease ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................228
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES ........................................................................................................................................................................................229
Experiments In Neurodegenerative Disease Research............................................................................................................................................229
Parkinson’s Disease .................................................................................................................................................................................................................229
Disproved Theories ............................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Genetic Causes ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Treatment ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Timeline...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................232
Alzheimer’s Disease.................................................................................................................................................................................................................233
Clinical Phases ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................234
Pathology .....................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.