Introduction to Learning
Ethics and experiments in history
Hippocrates (4th Century BC)
o First do no harm
Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
o Must have potential benefit
William Osler (1849-1918)
o Consent
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
o “Human Guinea Pigs” (1913)
The modern period
Nazi “experiments”
The effect of vacuum and pressure chambers
Sterilisation – chemical, operative, and radiological
Liver punctures
Deliberate septic infection
Experimental operative surgery
Exposure to gas and chemicals for varying periods
Gassing, benzene injections semi-moribund cremation before death
The Nuremberg Medical Trial
The accused faced 4 charges
1. Conspiracy to commit war crimes and crimes against humanity as
described in counts 2 and 3
2. War crimes: performing medical experiments, without the subjects’
consent, on prisoners of war and civilians of occupied countries, and
participation in the mass murder of concentration camp inmates.
3. Crimes against humanity: committing crimes described under count
2 also on German nationals
4. Membership in a criminal organisation, the SS.
Outcomes of the NMT
15 out of the 23 defendants found guilty:
o 7 were sentenced to death
o 8 found guilty of “participation in the mass murder of
concentration camp inmates”, served 10-20 years in prison
o Final judgement included a set of standards known as the
Nuremberg Code (1947)
o Ten standards to which physicians must conform when
carrying out experiments on human subjects
The Nuremberg Code (1947) - abbreviated versions
Ethics and experiments in history
Hippocrates (4th Century BC)
o First do no harm
Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
o Must have potential benefit
William Osler (1849-1918)
o Consent
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
o “Human Guinea Pigs” (1913)
The modern period
Nazi “experiments”
The effect of vacuum and pressure chambers
Sterilisation – chemical, operative, and radiological
Liver punctures
Deliberate septic infection
Experimental operative surgery
Exposure to gas and chemicals for varying periods
Gassing, benzene injections semi-moribund cremation before death
The Nuremberg Medical Trial
The accused faced 4 charges
1. Conspiracy to commit war crimes and crimes against humanity as
described in counts 2 and 3
2. War crimes: performing medical experiments, without the subjects’
consent, on prisoners of war and civilians of occupied countries, and
participation in the mass murder of concentration camp inmates.
3. Crimes against humanity: committing crimes described under count
2 also on German nationals
4. Membership in a criminal organisation, the SS.
Outcomes of the NMT
15 out of the 23 defendants found guilty:
o 7 were sentenced to death
o 8 found guilty of “participation in the mass murder of
concentration camp inmates”, served 10-20 years in prison
o Final judgement included a set of standards known as the
Nuremberg Code (1947)
o Ten standards to which physicians must conform when
carrying out experiments on human subjects
The Nuremberg Code (1947) - abbreviated versions
