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NU 545 Unit 2 | 2025-2026 LATEST UPDATED| REAL EXAM QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS | 100% RATED CORRECT | 100% VERFIED | ALREADY
GRADED A+
Review the anatomy of the brain. Which portion is responsible for keeping you awake,
controlling thought, speech, emotions and behavior, maintaining balance and posture? -
(answer)The reticular formation is a large network of diffuse nuclei that connect the brainstem to
the cortex and control vital reflexes. It is essential for maintaining wakefulness and is referred to
as the reticular activating system. Some nuclei within the reticular formation support specific
motor movements, such as balance and posture (p448). The cerebellum is responsible for
maintaining balance and posture (p452). The prefrontal area is responsible for the elaboration of
thought (pg 449). The Broca speech area is on the inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann 44, 45). It is
usually on the left hemisphere and is responsible for motor aspects of speech. Broca Area in the
inferior frontal lobe (Brodmann areas 44, 45) is an important center for speech and language
processing. This area, rostral to the inferior edge of the premotor area (Brodmann area 6). Injury
to this area results in difficulty forming or inability to for words (expressive aphasia or
dysphasia). Wernicke (posterior Brodmann 22) and adjacent portions of the parietal lobe are a
sensory speech area, responsible for reception and interpretation of speech (aphasia/dysphasia).
Insula (insular lobe) between hemispheres temporal and frontal lobes, processes emotional
information (pg 450). The basal ganglia nuclei are important for emotional functions (pg 451).
Cerebrum > forebrain/hindbrain
Broca's area = difficulty writing and finding words, See chart 17.10 (p523)
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Know the function of the arachnoid villi. - (answer)The arachnoid villi protrude from the
arachnoid space, through the dura mater, and lie within the blood flow of the venous sinuses. The
villi function as one-way valves directing CSF outflow into the blood but preventing blood flow
into the subarachnoid space. Thus CSF is formed from the blood and, after circulating
throughout the CNS, it returns to the blood. Absorbs CSF (pg 459)
Where is the primary defect in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's? - (answer)Extrapyramidal
system; controls motor system (involuntary movement) (pg 451). Substantia nigra (of the
midbrain) synthesizes dopamine. The dysfunction of dopamine neurons is associated with PD
and Huntington's
What is the function of the CSF? Where is it produced? Where is it absorbed? -
(answer)Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid similar to blood plasma and
interstitial fluid. The intracranial and spinal cord structures float in CSF and are thereby partially
protected from jolts and blows. The buoyant properties of the CSF also prevent the brain from
tugging on meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels. Appx 600mL is produced daily (457).
Ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses are the structures that produce CSF; they arise from the
pia mater. The arachnoid villi reabsorb the CSF (p458)
Review blood flow to the brain. - (answer)The brain receives approximately 20% of the cardiac
output, or 800 to 1000 mL of blood flow per minute. Autoregulated to maintain a stable flow
during fluctuating perfusion pressures. Carbon dioxide serves as a primary regulator for blood
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flow within the CNS. It is a potent vasodilator in the CNS, and its effects ensure an adequate
blood supply. The brain derives its arterial supply from the internal carotid arteries (anterior
circulation) and the vertebral arteries (posterior circulation) (Fig. 15.20). The internal carotid
arteries supply a proportionately greater amount of blood flow. They originate at the common
carotid arteries, enter the cranium through the base of the skull, and pass through the cavernous
sinus. After entering the skull, these arteries divide into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries
(Fig. 15.21). The vertebral arteries originate at the subclavian arteries and pass through the
transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae, entering the cranium through the foramen
magnum. They join at the junction of the pons and medulla oblongata to form the basilar artery.
The basilar artery divides at the level of the midbrain to form paired posterior cerebral arteries
(459). When one of the routes is obstructed, the circle of Willis is an alternate route.
What is the gate control theory of pain? - (answer)Gate control theory (GCT) integrates and
builds upon features of the other theories to explain the complex multidimensional aspects of
pain perception and pain modulation. Pain transmission is modulated by a balance of impulses
conducted to the spinal cord where cells in the substantia gelatinosa function as a "gate." The
spinal gate regulates pain transmission to higher centers in the CNS. Large myelinated A-delta
fibers and small unmyelinated C fibers respond to a broad range of painful stimuli (mechanical,
thermal, and chemical). These fibers terminate on interneurons in the substantia gelatinosa
(laminae in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord) and "open" the spinal gate to transmit the
perception of pain. Closure or partial closure of the spinal gates can occur from nonnociceptive
stimulation (i.e., from touch sensors in the skin) carried on large A-beta fibers decreasing pain
perception.
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The theories of pain include the specificity theory, pattern theory, gate control theory, and
neuromatrix theory. 4 Specificity theory proposes that pain and touch are carried on distinct
pathways that project to distinct brain centers. Injury activates only specific pain receptors and
fibers that project to the brain. Intensity of pain is directly related to the amount of associated
tissue injury (i.e., pricking one's finger with a needle would cause minimal pain, whereas cutting
one's hand with a knife would produce more pain). The theory is useful when applied to specific
injuries and the acute pain associated with them. It does not account for chronic pain or cognitive
and emotional elements that contribute to more complex types of pain. 5
Know the type of nerve fibers that transmit pain impulses. Page 470 - (answer)Transduction
begins when nociceptors are activated by a painful stimulus causing ion channels to open,
creating electrical impulses that travel through axons or two primary types. Pain impulses are
conducted along the A-delta and C fibers of nociceptors.
A-delta fibers: larger myelinated fibers that rapidly transmit sharp, well-localized "fast"
sensations (intense heat or pinprick) "reflex"
· stimulated by mechanoreceptors and mechanothermal nociceptors
· Responsible for causing reflex withdrawal of the body from the painful stimulus
C Fibers: most numerous, smaller, unmyelinated, slowly transmit dull, aching, burning
sensations that are poorly localize and constant
· Stimulated by mechanical, thermal, and chemical nociceptors
NU 545 Unit 2 | 2025-2026 LATEST UPDATED| REAL EXAM QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS | 100% RATED CORRECT | 100% VERFIED | ALREADY
GRADED A+
Review the anatomy of the brain. Which portion is responsible for keeping you awake,
controlling thought, speech, emotions and behavior, maintaining balance and posture? -
(answer)The reticular formation is a large network of diffuse nuclei that connect the brainstem to
the cortex and control vital reflexes. It is essential for maintaining wakefulness and is referred to
as the reticular activating system. Some nuclei within the reticular formation support specific
motor movements, such as balance and posture (p448). The cerebellum is responsible for
maintaining balance and posture (p452). The prefrontal area is responsible for the elaboration of
thought (pg 449). The Broca speech area is on the inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann 44, 45). It is
usually on the left hemisphere and is responsible for motor aspects of speech. Broca Area in the
inferior frontal lobe (Brodmann areas 44, 45) is an important center for speech and language
processing. This area, rostral to the inferior edge of the premotor area (Brodmann area 6). Injury
to this area results in difficulty forming or inability to for words (expressive aphasia or
dysphasia). Wernicke (posterior Brodmann 22) and adjacent portions of the parietal lobe are a
sensory speech area, responsible for reception and interpretation of speech (aphasia/dysphasia).
Insula (insular lobe) between hemispheres temporal and frontal lobes, processes emotional
information (pg 450). The basal ganglia nuclei are important for emotional functions (pg 451).
Cerebrum > forebrain/hindbrain
Broca's area = difficulty writing and finding words, See chart 17.10 (p523)
,2|Page
Know the function of the arachnoid villi. - (answer)The arachnoid villi protrude from the
arachnoid space, through the dura mater, and lie within the blood flow of the venous sinuses. The
villi function as one-way valves directing CSF outflow into the blood but preventing blood flow
into the subarachnoid space. Thus CSF is formed from the blood and, after circulating
throughout the CNS, it returns to the blood. Absorbs CSF (pg 459)
Where is the primary defect in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's? - (answer)Extrapyramidal
system; controls motor system (involuntary movement) (pg 451). Substantia nigra (of the
midbrain) synthesizes dopamine. The dysfunction of dopamine neurons is associated with PD
and Huntington's
What is the function of the CSF? Where is it produced? Where is it absorbed? -
(answer)Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid similar to blood plasma and
interstitial fluid. The intracranial and spinal cord structures float in CSF and are thereby partially
protected from jolts and blows. The buoyant properties of the CSF also prevent the brain from
tugging on meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels. Appx 600mL is produced daily (457).
Ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses are the structures that produce CSF; they arise from the
pia mater. The arachnoid villi reabsorb the CSF (p458)
Review blood flow to the brain. - (answer)The brain receives approximately 20% of the cardiac
output, or 800 to 1000 mL of blood flow per minute. Autoregulated to maintain a stable flow
during fluctuating perfusion pressures. Carbon dioxide serves as a primary regulator for blood
,3|Page
flow within the CNS. It is a potent vasodilator in the CNS, and its effects ensure an adequate
blood supply. The brain derives its arterial supply from the internal carotid arteries (anterior
circulation) and the vertebral arteries (posterior circulation) (Fig. 15.20). The internal carotid
arteries supply a proportionately greater amount of blood flow. They originate at the common
carotid arteries, enter the cranium through the base of the skull, and pass through the cavernous
sinus. After entering the skull, these arteries divide into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries
(Fig. 15.21). The vertebral arteries originate at the subclavian arteries and pass through the
transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae, entering the cranium through the foramen
magnum. They join at the junction of the pons and medulla oblongata to form the basilar artery.
The basilar artery divides at the level of the midbrain to form paired posterior cerebral arteries
(459). When one of the routes is obstructed, the circle of Willis is an alternate route.
What is the gate control theory of pain? - (answer)Gate control theory (GCT) integrates and
builds upon features of the other theories to explain the complex multidimensional aspects of
pain perception and pain modulation. Pain transmission is modulated by a balance of impulses
conducted to the spinal cord where cells in the substantia gelatinosa function as a "gate." The
spinal gate regulates pain transmission to higher centers in the CNS. Large myelinated A-delta
fibers and small unmyelinated C fibers respond to a broad range of painful stimuli (mechanical,
thermal, and chemical). These fibers terminate on interneurons in the substantia gelatinosa
(laminae in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord) and "open" the spinal gate to transmit the
perception of pain. Closure or partial closure of the spinal gates can occur from nonnociceptive
stimulation (i.e., from touch sensors in the skin) carried on large A-beta fibers decreasing pain
perception.
, 4|Page
The theories of pain include the specificity theory, pattern theory, gate control theory, and
neuromatrix theory. 4 Specificity theory proposes that pain and touch are carried on distinct
pathways that project to distinct brain centers. Injury activates only specific pain receptors and
fibers that project to the brain. Intensity of pain is directly related to the amount of associated
tissue injury (i.e., pricking one's finger with a needle would cause minimal pain, whereas cutting
one's hand with a knife would produce more pain). The theory is useful when applied to specific
injuries and the acute pain associated with them. It does not account for chronic pain or cognitive
and emotional elements that contribute to more complex types of pain. 5
Know the type of nerve fibers that transmit pain impulses. Page 470 - (answer)Transduction
begins when nociceptors are activated by a painful stimulus causing ion channels to open,
creating electrical impulses that travel through axons or two primary types. Pain impulses are
conducted along the A-delta and C fibers of nociceptors.
A-delta fibers: larger myelinated fibers that rapidly transmit sharp, well-localized "fast"
sensations (intense heat or pinprick) "reflex"
· stimulated by mechanoreceptors and mechanothermal nociceptors
· Responsible for causing reflex withdrawal of the body from the painful stimulus
C Fibers: most numerous, smaller, unmyelinated, slowly transmit dull, aching, burning
sensations that are poorly localize and constant
· Stimulated by mechanical, thermal, and chemical nociceptors
